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SCIO – Valid Journal supplement. Additional art proving Trans-cranial Eductor small.

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12 stycznia 2021

On 12 stycznia 2021

There are far too many articles on trans-cranial stimulation to post here, but here is a summary of some of the best in abstracts that prove the SCIO/Eductor histroy of success.

MAGNETIC ELECTRO-ACUPUNCTURE BRAIN STIMULATION
MAGINETIC WAND
Lose Weight with Electro-Shock Therapy
By Douglas Robbon Jan<iGry 29,2013@healthhabits

A new study,published inthe journal Obesity and Weight Loss Therapy ,has found that cranial eledrotherapy st1mulat1on was able to amplify the weight loss effeds of both…

Better Living Through
Electrocheinistry

WIRED UP
łi tl’lSC’C11 1dltt:t cwrenl
!>11mu1atlor. dJodt!S 13ełH” oacur-1n1ed. Epenui1sor
the p1ent oł thenc<le{r) anc (łtho-:10 -i

We can direct the Power of the Cybermagnetic Music or the SCIO/Eductor Energy into an Acupuncture point or into a Brain area
Skill Learning
_….,.. Strategy

· Can we accelerate nondeclarative (skill) learning?

Previous research – enhancement simple motor procedura!
learnlng wlth motor cortex stlmulatlon (Galea & Celnlk,2009)
• Wanted to ex.amina more complex motor procedura! task
Strategy

Enhance motor sklll
Excite – Motor Cortex

Depress competing memory
lnhibit – Prefrontal Cortex

NIBS Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation – The Air Force Research Laboratory and tDCS
Posted on January 7, 2013 by John

Every military application of tDCS I’ve seen so far specifically mentions drones and drone pilot training. This logo has a drone in it! For the record, I think the use of drones is illegal and immoral, and that the deaths of innocents are un-American and unacceptable. That said, the tDCS research coming out of this sector is fascinating and will no doubt have an impact beyond military training.

This comes fromhttps://community.apan.org/afosr/m/bioenergy_program_revie w/114364.aspx and is a public document (no longer available). It appears to be a set of slides used in a presentation. It documents the most aggressive use of tDCS for the purpose of learning and cognitive enhancement I’ve seen. You will conclude, after reading this that the Air Force is not fooling around.

Here is one of the more shocking aspects of the research: The notion that cathodal stimulation can have a positive effect by depressing ‘competing memory’. What? The plot thickens.

There is weeks of research ahead for anyone diving deeply into this paper. A lot of new questions to answer.

Does Passing A Small Current Through Your Brain Really Make You Smarter?
Posted on January 7, 2013 by John
A lot of the ‘pop sci’ articles are drawing on the results of only a few studies. Hopefully we’ll get affirmation of the efficacy of tDCS in cognitive enhancement soon.

Excellent update from Giulio Ruffini of Neuroelectrics. Full of links to relevant papers.

tDCS and Stroke: What We Know So Far (Jan 2013)

As far as I can tell, this is a new development in understanding the mechanism for the mediation of pain using tDCS.
Immediate effects of tDCS on the μ-opioid system of a chronic pain patient
To our knowledge, we provide data for the first time in vivo that there is possibly an instant increase of endogenous μ-opioid release during acute motor cortex neuromodulator with tDCS.
(And the pop-sci media follow-up Electrical Current Can Unlock The Seriously Good Drugs In Your Brain and Happiness Is a Warm Transcranial Direct Current Electrode)
A lot of research is going on right now into understanding where exactly, current if flowing.

The electric field in the cortex during transcranial current stimulation
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of tissue heterogeneity and of the complex cortical geometry on the electric field distribution.
Some context.

A pioneer work on electric brain stimulation in psychotic patients. Rudolph Gottfried Arndt and his 1870s studies.
Today’s brain stimulation methods are commonly traced back historically to surgical brain operations. With this one-sided historical approach it is easy to overlook the fact that non-surgical electrical brain-stimulating applications preceded present-day therapies.
Mental Practice, or MP is practicing doing something without actually doing it. A musician imagining playing their instrument for instance. This study measured quality of handwriting with the non-dominant hand while using tDCS.

Site-specific effects of mental practice combined with transcranial direct current stimulation on motor learning

Posted in Clinical Trial, Paper | Tagged current flow, history, left DLPFC, M1, mental practice, pain
Anodal trans-cranial direct current stimulation of prefrontal cortex enhances working memory – Springer
Posted on December 13, 2012 by John
[Update 12/17/2012 Another paper discussing the efficacy of using tDCS to enhance working memory.
Trans-cranial direct current stimulation of the prefrontal cortex modulates working memory performance: combined behavioral and electrophysiological evidence
Working memory, as associated with ‘brain training’ and ‘plasticity‘, is often expressed as what one would wish to have more of, or at the very least, what one hopes not to lose as we age. (For a great overview of working memory and the how’s of enhancing it, see this fascinating post from neuroscientist Bradley Voytek’s blog Working memory and cognitive enhancement.)
Our aim was to determine whether anodal transcranial direct current stimulation, which enhances brain cortical excitability and activity, would modify performance in a sequential-letter working memory task when administered to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex DLPFC. Fifteen subjects underwent a three-back working memory task based on letters. This task was performed during sham and anodal stimulation applied over the left DLPFC. Moreover seven of these subjects performed the same task, but with inverse polarity cathodal stimulation of the left DLPFC and anodal stimulation
of the primary motor cortex M1. Our results indicate that only anodal stimulation of the left prefrontal cortex, but not cathodal stimulation of left DLPFC or anodal stimulation of M1, increases the accuracy of the task performance when compared to sham stimulation of the same area. This accuracy enhancement during active stimulation cannot be accounted for by slowed responses, as response times were not changed by stimulation. Our results indicate that left prefrontal anodal stimulation leads to an enhancement of working memory performance. Furthermore, this effect depends on the stimulation polarity and is specific to the site of stimulation. This result may be helpful to develop future interventions aiming at clinical benefits.

via Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation of prefrontal cortex enhances working memory – Springer. full pdf
This 2011 paper does confirm positive results of tDCS in a similar application and test
setup. Improving working memory: exploring the effect of transcranial random noise stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation on the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
However, the study does provide confirmation of previous findings that anodal tDCS enhances some aspects of DLPFC functioning.

Posted in Clinical Trial, Paper, pdf | Tagged Antal, Bermpohl, Boggio, Bradley Voytek, Feredoes, Fregni,left DLPFC, Marcolin, Nitsche, Pascual-Leone, Paulus, Rigonatti, Silva, working memory
PLOS ONE: Trans-cranial Direct Current Stimulation Augments
Perceptual Sensitivity+24-Hour Retention in a Complex Threat Detection Task
Posted on December 9, 2012 by John
Vincent Clark is an author on this paper. He’s associated with the Mind Research Network.
We earlier covered work by Michael Weisend, also from MRN around a Jan. 2012 paper. This paper offers further details and is available to the public.

Trans-cranial Direct Current Stimulation Procedures
TDCS was applied using an ActivaDose II Iontophoresis Delivery Unit, which provides for delivery of a constant low level of direct current. Square-shaped (11 cm2) saline-soaked (0.9% sodium saline solution) sponge electrodes were attached to the participant with self-adhesive bandage strips. The anode was placed near electrode site F10 in the 10-10 EEG system, over the right sphenoid bone.
The cathode was placed on the contralateral (left) upper arm. The site of the anode was selected based on our previous fMRI results showing that this brain region was the primary locus of neural activity associated with performance this task [23].

Anodal 2 mA current was applied to the scalp electrode site F10 in the 10-10 EEG system. The resulting enhancement of performance in the threat detection task is consistent with our previous fMRI results [23] showing that the right inferior frontal cortex is a major locus of a distributed brain network that mediates performance on this task. The right parietal cortex is a part of this network and could also be a target for stimulation.
—————————–
One possible explanation for the improvement in detection performance (hit rate) in the threat detection task is that tDCS increases general arousal, thereby leading to a change in response bias
in the more liberal direction [25], which would increase the hit rate. However, computation of signal detection metrics showed that there were no significant effects of tDCS on the ß measure of response bias. Instead, the effect of brain stimulation was to enhance perceptual sensitivity, d′.

The improvement in perceptual sensitivity suggests that participants receiving tDCS were better able to encode stimulus features that distinguished targets and non-targets, which in turn led to accelerated learning and improved retention.

via PLOS ONE: Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Augments Perceptual Sensitivity and 24- Hour Retention in a Complex Threat Detection Task.

Posted in Paper | Tagged ActivaDose, F10, Mind Research Network, Vincent Clark | Leave a reply
tDCS – Building Research tDCS Units
« SpeakWisdom
Posted on November 19, 2012 by John
This bubbled up today. He explores some choices he made in building his DIY kit in a series of blog posts on tDCS.

Just to see how easily it could be done, I built a couple of tDCS units for about $30 each using common parts. The meters were purchased from EBay for about $7 each and all the remaining components came from a local Radio Shack, including the case, voltage regulator, resistors, etc. The tDCS units feature a potentiometer to make it possible to adjust current for treatment specifics or pad variations.

(Two tDCS units built in about 3 hours for well less than $100)

via tDCS – Building Research tDCS Units « SpeakWisdom.

Posted in Device, DIY, Paper |
Trans-cranial Direct Current Stimulation Intensity and Duration Effects on Tinnitus Suppression
Posted on October 6, 2012 by John
2
Tinnitus has been a part of my life for so long I can’t remember not having it. While it doesn’t seem to bother me the way it does others, it can be very annoying, especially when I’m in a very quiet environment, camping for instance. So it would be incredible if a breakthrough in tinnitus treatment were to come along.

Background. Perception of sound in the absence of an external auditory source is called tinnitus, which may negatively affect quality of life. Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation tDCS of the left temporoparietal area LTA was explored for tinnitus relief. Objective. This pilot study examined tDCS dose current intensity and duration and response effects for tinnitus
suppression. Methods. Twenty-five participants with chronic tinnitus and a mean age of 54 years took part. Anodal tDCS of LTA was carried out. Current intensity 1 mA and 2 mA and duration 10 minutes, 15 minutes, and 20 minutes were varied and their impact on tinnitus measured. Results. tDCS was well tolerated. Fifty-six percent of participants 14 experienced transient suppression of tinnitus, and 44% of participants 11 experienced long-term improvement of symptoms overnight— less annoyance, more relaxed, and better sleep. There was an interaction between duration and intensity of the stimulus on the change in rated loudness of tinnitus, F2, 48 = 4.355, P = .018, and clinical global improvement score, F2, 48 = 3.193, P = .050, after stimulation. Conclusions.
Current intensity of 2 mA for 20 minutes was the more effective stimulus parameter for anodal tDCS of LTA. tDCS can be a potential clinical tool for reduction of tinnitus, although longer term trials are needed.
via Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Intensity and Duration Effects on Tinnitus Suppression.

Posted in Paper | Tagged paywall, Searchfield, Shekhawat, Stinear, tinnitus |
Where To Find More Information
Posted on September 20, 2012 by John
I’m calling this the deep data page. I’ll collect links to collections of papers and abstracts that cover tDCS. There is really, a LOT, of information out there and lots more is on the way. I’ll update this page as I come across more articles. If you have a favorite tDCS stash, please share it in the comments.

 Soterix Medical has an excellent collection of tDCS Abstracts it keeps updated.
 Growing.com has a great collection of tDCS related Abstracts, and an extensive collection of full artitcles.
 MIT Press links to tDCS abstracts.
 PubMeb tDCS search return over 600 articles.
 Some very interesting tDCS articles from MusiciansBrain.com.
 Hundreds of results at Google Scholar.
 Trans-Cranial Technologies has a great list of tDCS abstracts.

Posted in Article, Paper | Tagged tDCS abstracs, tDCS papers | Leave a reply
Vincent Walsh TMS > tDCS & Migraine
Posted on September 15, 2012 by John
Towards the end of the video (The Daily Telegraph 2008) Professor Vincent Walsh, (now of University of California Davis) discusses tDCS and its potential for therapeutic use. Especially of interest is the information on migraine headaches:

So, some migraines are caused by having too much activity in the visual brain area, and some are by having too little activity. And we hope that this can balance out, reverse that relative inactivity in the brain.

Could this imply that one person’s migraine could be mitigated with Cathodal (-) tdcs while another’s might benefit from Anodal (+) application of tDCS? And conversely, does it imply that improper stimulation would lead to MORE migraines?

If I suffered from migraines and wanted to test tDCS, here’s where I’d start:
Check the FisherWallace Find A Doctor search page for an electrotherapist in your area.
If they will treat you for migraine, try a few sessions. If it works, and your doctor will authorize a purchase, you can buy your own unit (for $700). A FisherWallace device may qualify for insurance coverage.
Alternately, I would monitor the ClinicalTrials.gov site and keep an eye out for new studies testing tDCS for migraine. And lastly, I would contact manufacturers of other tDCS devices and ask if they knew of any electrotherapy practitioners in your area working with migraine. Here’s my short list of manufacturers to contact:
 Soterix Medical: Are on the cutting edge of all things tDCS and in some of their literature I have seen them mention migraine.
 MagStim: Another medical-level producer, although I’m not sure these devices are approved for use in the U.S. yet.
 Alpha-Stim: While they don’t advertize the use of their device for migraine, they do
offer many testimonials from people who state they found it beneficial. I have not seen this company associated with any scientific studies or papers.

Posted in Device, Paper | Tagged Alpha-Stim, electrotherapists, FisherWallace, Magstim, migraine,Soterix, Vincent Walsh
| Leave a reply
Induction of visual dream reports after trans-cranial direct current stimulation (tDCs) during Stage 2 sleep – JAKOBSON – 2012 – Journal of Sleep Research
Posted on September 7, 2012 by John
This is encouraging because a previous study showed minimal effect on dreaming using tDCS.
In both experiments a significantly greater number of imagery reports were found on awakening after tDCs (cathodal–frontal, anodal–parietal), compared to the blank control conditions. However, in Experiment 2 the frequency of imagery reports from the tDCs (cathodal–frontal, anodal–parietal) was not significantly different from the other two tDC conditions, suggesting a non-specific effect of tDCs. Overall, it was concluded that tDCs (cathodal–frontal, anodal–parietal) increased the frequency of dream reports with visual imagery, possibly via a general arousing effect and/or recreating specific cortical neural activity involved in dreaming.

Posted in Paper | Tagged dreams, Jakobson, Wiley | Leave a reply
Amping Up Brain Function:
Trans-cranial Stimulation Shows Promise in Speeding up Learning:
Scientific American
Posted on August 20, 2012 by John
Another group of researchers hot on the trail how tDCS might be used to enhance brain function is the (non-profit) Mind Research Network of Albuquerque, NM. A lot of their work is funded by NiH, but what I’ve seen around their tDCS research pertains to increasing soldier’s ability to detect
danger, and is funded by DOA (2010 Research Report pdf) Unfortunately I was not able to find a full version of the paper not behind a pay wall. The abstract is here and from a Scientific America article…
Subjects definitely register the stimulation, but it is not unpleasant. “It feels like a mild tickling or slight burning,” says undergraduate student Lauren Bullard, who was one of the subjects in another study on TDCS and learning reported at the meeting, along with her mentors Jung and Michael Weisend and colleagues of the Mind Research Network in Albuquerque. “Afterward I feel more alert,” she says.

Bullard and her co-authors sought to determine if they could measure any tangible changes in the brain after TDCS, which could explain how the treatment accelerates learning. The researchers looked for both functional changes in the brain (altered brain-wave activity) and physical changes (by examining MRI brain scans) after TDCS.

They used magnetoencephalography (MEG) to record magnetic fields (brain waves) produced by sensory stimulation (sound, touch and light, for example), while test subjects received TDCS. The researchers reported that TDCS gave a six-times baseline boost to the amplitude of a brain wave generated in response to stimulating a sensory nerve in the arm. The boost was not seen when mock TDCS was used, which produced a similar sensation on the scalp, but was ineffective in exciting brain tissue. The effect also persisted long after TDCS was stopped. The sensory-evoked brain wave remained 2.5 times greater than normal 50 minutes after TDCS. These results suggest that TDCS increases cerebral cortex excitability, thereby heightening arousal, increasing responses to sensory input, and accelerating information processing in cortical circuits.

Remarkably, MRI brain scans revealed clear structural changes in the brain as soon as five days after TDCS. Neurons in the cerebral cortex connect with one another to form circuits via massive bundles of nerve fibers (axons) buried deep below the brain’s surface in “white matter tracts.” The fiber bundles were found to be more robust and more highly organized after TDCS. No changes were seen on the opposite side of the brain that was not stimulated by the scalp electrodes.
via Amping Up Brain Function: Transcranial Stimulation Shows Promise in Speeding Up Learning: Scientific American.

Beluil’for Resear:ch f ttłuxl s & lnstnunentatiotr

Vol. 14(3).J2J.J28
A multifunctional on-line
brain stimula.tion system
RICHARD W. PHELPS
Tu/ts Unlversity, M«lford, Massachusttts 02J JJ

and
MICHAEL J. LEWIS
Howard Univtrsity, Washington,D. C. 200J9

A flexible on·line electrical brain stimulation eystam designed for brain etimulation reward (BSR) re-.ch is described. A Cromemco Z.2D rnicrocomputar is interfaced with a constant. current stimulator and a standard operant chamber. The eystam progrll!Dll, wrltu.n substan· tially in BASIC, calculata BSR tluuhold by two rate-independent methods, mauure rata of operant responding, and dew.rnine rellistance of the brain. Other software progrll!Dll are ueed for training rata on complex schedules of reinfottement , for systam hardware calibration, and for eophiaticated statistical data analyses.

Using a cla:ssical psychophysical iechnique to measure electńcal brain stimulation reward (BSR) Utresholds presen ts a significant problem. The subject’s behavior (usually lever pressing) is controlled by the reinforcing stimulation for which the threshold is to be found. Many expeńmenters have tried to avoid this problem by mea· suńng anima! responsc ratc using suprathreshold stimula· tion and inferring changes in threshold from changes in rate. If a rate 1neasure is used, however, it is not pos.tjble to discriminate between the effects of the experimen tal trea tment on threshold vs. itseffectson motor responses. Ahemative methods (Huston & Mills, J 97 I ;Marcus & Kometsky , 1974;Valenstein & Meyers, 1964) determine
threshold witlh less reliance on rate of response.Huston and Mills (1971) measure BSR threshold with a psycho· physical procedure bascd on the observation that per· formance under a flxed-ratio (FR) schedule is di fferent fro1n that u.ndtr a continuous reinforcemcnt (CR F) schedule (Ferster & Skinner, 1957). I n this procedure. rats łeverpress for rcwarding stiJuulation on an FR sched· ule and, concurren tly , on a CRF schcdule, using a single lever. This combined schedule is known as a CR F·FR. The FR currenl intensity is fixed a t a suprathreshold level, which rnaintains the Jeverprcssing response at any CRF current intensity.

The procedures de\’elopcd in thispaper are a directoutgrowth of the work of Ors. A. William Mill$, M. P. Huston,and G. Pick Ca$SCns and their associatcs. We wish to expres.s our apprec:iation
for lheiJ previous work and conttibution to our thlnk.iog. The
system dcvclopment and pure was pa.rtia.lly supported by
granu from Bernard IUrloscon,!Jeanor facully. Tufts Univenity; DH HS (RR 07179, RR 08016); and Howard University,Cradua te School of Arts and Sciences (Nlll·RPE I 397F). Reprint requests should be addJes.1Cd to f.Uchacl J . Lewis. Deparunent uf PsychoJogy. Howard Unlvtrsit)’, Washington, O. C. 20059.

An 3nimal performing on a „pure” FR schedule exhibits postreinforcemcnt pauses (PRPs) (Ferster & Skinner, 1957). As CRF currenl intensity is increased from zero on a CRF-FR schcdule, FR pauses becomc shorter and eventually disappear . The rat’s performance shifts from that which is characteristic of an FR sched· ule (many PRPs) to that which is characteristic of a CRF schedule (no PRPs). Decreasingtlie CRFcurrent intensity causes the pauses to reappear. Threshold is determined by appearance or disappearance of these pauses 3S the CRF curren t intensity is varied .Huston and Mills (I971) reported that threshold deterrnination was independent of the size of the FR and of the supratheshold FR current intensity .
The definition of a PRP h3s been a problem using this threshold technique. Huston (Note I) deftned a PRP as the interv3J just visually discernible on. the cumu · lativc recorder. Cassens and Mills (1973) defincd it as an interval greater than 7 sec. but not more thai 3 min. Cassens. Shaw, Dudding, and Mills( 1975) devised a ratc dependen t definition : A PRP was defmed as an interval grcater than the mean CRF in terresponse interval (IR!) plus three standard deviations. Thus, 3 PRP was relative to the CRF IRI. This provided a rate·independent means of determining the PRP and. hence,threshold .
The system presented in this paper employs the same rate-indcpenden c concept for determining threshold. A fixed number of FR reinforcemen ts are presen ted at each CRF current level. Threshold is defined as the current Jevel that produces PRPs half of the time ,that is. a PRP/FR ratio of .50. Th reshold is deterrnined by eval· uating PRP/FR ratios over a CRF cu rrent range,a.nd then intcrpolating the current valuc at a PRP/FR of .SO (see Figure I ).
Thrcshold determination using this system is reliable

323 ooos.7878/82/030323·06$00.85/0

Mapping of woman’s brain reveal new regions of sexual stimulation
For the first time, researchers have shown that the stimulation of the vagina, cervix and clitoris activate three separate regions in the sensory cortex of a woman’s brain, contrary to what many sex experts have long believed.

HANDOUT PHOTO
This image shows three separate areas of a woman’s brain activated by sexual stimulation, contrary to what many experts have long believed. Barry Komisaruk, a psychology professor at Rutgers University, has spent considerable time mapping the brain and how it is activated during sexual stimulation and orgasm.
By: Debra Black Staff Reporter, Published on Thu Nov 24 2011

For the first time, the stimulation of the vagina, cervix and clitoris are shown to activate three separate regions in the sensory cortex of a woman’s brain.
The discovery comes from Barry Komisaruk, a psychology professor at Rutgers University, who has spent considerable time mapping the brain and how it is activated during sexual stimulation and orgasm. Komisaruk and his team recently presented an animated video of a woman’s brain as she reaches orgasm using brain scan images.
In a study published earlier this year in the Journal of Sexual Medicine, Komisaruk was able to map a series of women’s brains using functional magnetic resonance imaging to see whether or not stimulation of the vagina and cervix would activate any regions of the brain.

PhotosView photos



Eleven women, ages 23-56, participated in the study and had their brains mapped as they engaged in self- stimulation.

The sensory regions of the brain were first mapped by Montreal neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield in the 1950s on male epilepsy patients. It was called the sensory homunculus and detailed a man’s body parts and their corresponding sensory regions in the brain.

What Komisaruk found changes the way many think about the way women are sexually stimulated and how it affects their brains.

Many sex experts have said and believed that genital stimulation came from the stimulation of the clitoris as compared to the vagina and cervix.

“What we show is that each of those three regions produce a significant sensory input to the cortex,” explained Komisaruk.

“There had been some controversy in the literature as to whether the vagina and cervix produce a sensory response,” he said. “This is clear evidence they do.”

“This was a big surprise to my male neuroscience colleagues because it violates the classical view of the sensory mapping of the body.”

Another unexpected result of the study was that nipple stimulation not only shows up in the chest area of the brain, but also in the genital area.

This could explain why nipple or breast stimulation is erotic, said Komisaruk.

The study is “clear evidence that there is a sensory response from the vagina and cervix” — something many have denied.

The parts of the brain that are activated when the vagina and cervix are stimulated are very near the spot in the brain which is activated when a woman’s clitoris is stimulated.

“They’re clustered together like three grapes,” said Komisaruk. “They each have a distinct projection zone and clearly are different from each other yet clustered together in the sensory cortex.”

And they are in the same general area of the sensory cortex which is stimulated in a man when his genitals are stimulated, he said.

Komisaruk and others believe that by understanding how stimulation of different female genital regions effect the brain and how they interrelate will help researchers understand women’s sexuality and perhaps provide answers to sexual dysfunction.

Amping Up Brain Function: Transcranial Stimulation Shows Promise in Speeding Up Learning
Electrical stimulation of the brain is found to accelerate learning in military and civilian subjects, although researchers are wary of drawing larger conclusions about the mechanism
Nov 25, 2011 |By R. Douglas Fields

Courtesy of Richard A. McKinley, USAF

WASHINGTON, D.C.—One of the most difficult tasks to teach Air Force pilots who guide unmanned attack drones is how to pick out targets in complex radar images. Pilot training is currently one of the biggest bottlenecks in deploying these new, deadly weapons.

So Air Force researchers were delighted recently to learn that they could cut training time in half by delivering a mild electrical current (two milliamperes of direct current for 30 minutes) to pilot’s brains during training sessions on video simulators. The current is delivered through EEG (electroencephalographic) electrodes placed on the scalp. Biomedical engineer Andy McKinley and colleagues at the Air Force Research Laboratory at Wright–Patterson Air Force Base, reported their finding on this so- called transcranial direct current stimulation (TDCS) here at the Society for Neuroscience annual meeting on November 13.

„I don’t know of anything that would be comparable,” McKinley said, contrasting the cognitive boost of TDCS with, for example, caffeine or other stimulants that have been tested as enhancements to learning. TDCS not only accelerated learning, pilot accuracy was sustained in trials lasting up to 40 minutes. Typically accuracy in identifying threats declines steadily after 20 minutes. Beyond accelerating pilot training, TDCS could have many medical applications in the military and beyond by accelerating retraining and recovery after brain injury or disease.

The question for the Air Force and others interested in transcranial stimulation is whether these findings will hold up over time or will land in the dustbin ofpseudoscience.

„There is so much pop science out there on this right now,” says neurobiologist Rex Jung of the University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center in Albuquerque, referring to sensational media reports, the widely varying protocols and sometimes lax controls used in different studies of brain stimulation to power learning or elevate mood.

Indeed, electrical stimulation for therapeutic effect has a long and checkered history extending back to the 19th century when „electrotherapy” was the rage among adventurous medical doctors as well as quacks. Pulses of electric current were applied to treat a wide range of conditions from insomnia to uterine cancer. The placebo effect

might have been at work in the case of those historical results, and although the experiments were carefully controlled, it is unclear to skeptics if it is a factor in the case of the Air Force’s research on transcranial stimulation and learning.

Subjects definitely register the stimulation, but it is not unpleasant. „It feels like a mild tickling or slight burning,” says undergraduate student Lauren Bullard, who was one of the subjects in another study on TDCS and learning reported at the meeting, along with her mentors Jung and Michael Weisend and colleagues of the Mind Research Network in Albuquerque. „Afterward I feel more alert,” she says. But why?

Bullard and her co-authors sought to determine if they could measure any tangible changes in the brain after TDCS, which could explain how the treatment accelerates learning. The researchers looked for both functional changes in the brain (altered brain- wave activity) and physical changes (by examining MRI brain scans) after TDCS.

Remarkably, MRI brain scans revealed clear structural changes in the brain as soon as five days after TDCS. Neurons in the cerebral cortex connect with one another to form circuits via massive bundles of nerve fibers (axons) buried deep below the brain’s surface in „white matter tracts.” The fiber bundles were found to be more robust and more highly organized after TDCS. No changes were seen on the opposite side of the brain that was not stimulated by the scalp electrodes.

The structural changes in white matter detected by the MRI technique, called diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), could be caused by a number of microscopic physical or cellular

alterations in brain tissue, but identifying those is impossible without obtaining samples of the tissue for analysis under a microscope.

An expert on brain imaging, Robert Turner of the Department of Neurophysics at the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, in Leipzig, Germany, who was not involved in the study, speculated that the changes detected by DTI could represent an increase in insulation on the fibers (myelin) that would speed transmission of information through the fibers. „In my present view, the leading hypothesis for the observed rapid changes…is that previously unmyelinated axonal fibers within white matter become rapidly myelinated when they start to carry frequent action potentials,” he says. There are, however, several other possible explanations, he cautions.

Matthias Witkowski, now at the Institute for Medicine, Psychology and Behavioral Neurobiology at the University of Tübingen in Germany, described the rapid changes in white matter in these experiments as „incredible.” „That [white matter changes] would not have been my first guess,” he said. „It will be very interesting to see if there are cellular changes.” This is the next step in research planned by Jung and colleagues. They hope to obtain brain tissue from patients who would be willing to participate in TDCS studies prior to undergoing necessary brain surgery in which tissue would be removed as a required part of their treatment.

Witkowski is convinced by these new studies and his own research that transcranial stimulation can accelerate many kinds of learning, and research on brain–machine interfacing, which he presented at the meeting, demonstrates the potential for TDCS in speeding patient rehabilitation after injury. People with paralyzed limbs can be taught to control a robotic glovelike device that will move their fingers in response to the patient’s own thoughts. Electrodes on the person’s scalp pick up brain waves as the person imagines moving his or her hand. The brain waves are analyzed by a computer to control the robotic artificial hand. But learning to generate the proper brain waves to control the artificial hand through thought alone requires considerable training. Witkowski found that if patients received 20 minutes of TDCS stimulation once during five days of training, they learned to control the hand with their thoughts much more rapidly.

The new studies reported at this meeting suggest that there is far more to speed learning produced by TDCS than can be explained by the placebo effect. And the evidence now

shows that TDCS produces physical changes in the brain’s structure as well as physiological changes in its response. TDCS increases cortical excitability, which can be measured in recordings of brain waves, and it also causes changes in the structure of the brain’s connections that can be observed on an MRI. By using electricity to energize neural circuits in the cerebral cortex, researchers are hopeful that they have found a harmless and drug-free way to double the speed of learning.

Cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES), (also known as “electrosleep”, “transcranial electrotherapy” and by many other names), involves a form of treatment that sends low intensity microcurrent (under 1 milliampere) to the brain. [1] CES devices function differently from other biomedical electronics, such as deep brain stimulating electrodes (which prevent
seizures and hand tremors) [2] and heart pacemakers. While those instruments require surgical implantation, CES operates non-invasively. Designed for home use, the devices deliver current to the brain via a hand held machine to electrodes attached on or behind the ears. [3]
Uses for Brain Health
A wide body of research suggests that the technique effectively treats insomnia, depression and anxiety (the only FDA approved uses). Scientific data also shows promise for other conditions such as pain, tension/migraine headaches, fibromyalgia, and ADHD. CES might also
provide benefits for chemical dependencies (such as street and prescription drugs, alcohol, and tobacco); that is, it might help the insomnia, anxiety and depression that often manifest during withdrawal. [4,5]
Patient Experience

The devices, sold by prescription in the U.S., require initial assessment and ongoing medical follow-up. [6] Treatment protocols vary based upon the health issue and the phase of treatment. Therefore, patients with anxiety typically use devices for 20-60 minutes daily for the first 2 to 3 weeks, with less frequent use thereafter. [7] Users may do other things during treatment (such as read, watch TV), but should not drive or operate machinery during or shortly after treatment. [8]
Individual responses may vary, but most users report reduced symptoms (such as anxiety) after their first or second treatment. Severe depression however, may require three weeks for therapeutic results. During use, patients often experience pleasant mental states with increased muscle relaxation yet enhanced mental clarity. They might also feel a pulsing or tingling, sensation in their earlobes, (considered normal), which setting adjustments can alleviate.
Positive effects after a single treatment may last up to two days and effects usually become cumulative. [9]
Brain Effects
Researchers don’t fully understand mechanisms involved, but theorize that CES electrical current helps reestablish optimal brain chemistry and improves efficiency of neural connections. [10] One example of research supporting this theory involves electrical engineering simulations conducted by researchers at the University of Texas, Austin. Their brain mapping techniques suggested that minute amounts of current traveled to the brain’s thalamus, enough to enable release of neurotransmitters. [11] Other research conducted by North Dakota State University utilized EEG techniques to quantify changes during administration of CES versus sham treatment. The research showed frequency distribution shifts suggestive of beneficial changes. [12]
Based on current and ongoing research, neuroscientist Dr. James Giordano postulates that CES microcurrent travels to the base of the brain (the brainstem), activating clusters of nerve cells which make the brain chemicals serotonin and acetylcholine. Serotonin is linked to
relaxation [13] while acetylcholine is linked to body processes not under conscious control while at rest. [14] Released by nerve cells at the synapse, these neurotransmitters influence
pathways within the brain and spinal cord that inhibit arousal and agitation. The resulting “fine tuning” helps the nervous system to restore homeostatic balance and possibly creates brain patterns known as alpha rhythms. Measurable via brain wave recordings (called EEG); scientists often associate alpha states with enhanced mental focus and relaxation. Neurological processes linked to alpha states seem to reduce stress, stabilize mood, and exert control over certain types of pain.

Effectiveness
Scientists conducted much of the early work on CES in France. Starting work in the early 1900′s, they theorized that minute amounts of current (applied to the head) would calm the

central nervous system, inducing a sleep-like state. [16] The technique took hold in the West in the late 1960′s, when Austria hosted International Symposia on the topic. The uneven quality of studies published up until that time however, generated skepticism as well as further research. Still in progress, the scientific community has accumulated years of research, which spans the past century. [17]
In his recently revised book, The Science Behind Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation, Daniel L. Kirsch reviewed CES research from the last 40 years which includes 126 human and 29 animal studies, and 31 review articles. Over half came from peer-reviewed sources and most, coming from major US universities used double blind techniques. Of studies reviewed, 112 (89%), claimed positive results. Seventeen follow-up studies evaluating residual effects (lasting 1 week to 2 years) showed at least some continuing effect in all of the patients. [18]
While a body of published research does exist, some have reservations. Research design and quality varies widely and very few peer reviewed journals are publishing recent studies.
Complicating matters, makers of the device often lack proper funding to support high quality research. [19] Others think the technique needs more study in terms of practicality and cost effectiveness. [20]
As a way to clarify CES efficacy, medical researchers from the Harvard School of Public Health published a thorough scientific review of CES devices. Their report identified 18 of the most rigorous studies of CES versus sham treatment. They then applied meta-analysis to 14 of those studies, using combined results to further discern effects after treating four different conditions. [21] Reconfirming previous meta-analysis by University of Tulsa researchers, [22] pooling techniques showed CES to be significantly more effective for treating anxiety; but they did not affect results for insomnia, headache, and brain dysfunction. The review team made comment that most studies under scrutiny needed to publish more complete data and blind treatment providers from knowing which patients were getting CES. [23]
Safety/Precautions
CES has an excellent safety record, few side-effects, and works well for all age groups. CES users sometimes have temporary headaches, lightheadedness, skin irritation from electrodes and rare paradoxical reactions (such as excitement, anxiety, sleep problems, or increases in pre-existing depression). Pregnant or lactating women, people with implanted bioelectrical devices, or those taking supplements or medications affecting the brain or vascular system should first consult with a physician. [24] Of 17 follow-up studies conducted up to two years after treatment, none showed negative effects. [25] Very few major short or long-term problems have therefore been found, and several of the devices carry FDA approval. [26]

Implications for Use
CES has been around for many years, yet its use in the U.S. remains little known. First of all, new therapies must prove efficacy to gain recognition. [27] Additionally, medical school training

is non-existent, postgraduate continuing education offerings are scarce, and device makers lack marketing resources. [28] Given that mainstream providers and the public seem mostly unaware of the treatment, alternative providers may be prescribing it most. Among the few who do know about CES, opinions vary.
According to Dr. Daniel Kirsch, an authority on electromedicine and Chairman of Electromedical Products International, research shows CES to be safe, having good results for a range of brain based disorders. He believes the evidence supports use as a first line treatment for issues it effectively treats. [29]
Upon their review, insurer Aetna however, found that CES remains “experimental and investigational” for major depression, other psychiatric disorders, and for “neuropsychological indications (alcoholism, chemical dependency, dementia, depression, headache)…” They say that the evidence is encouraging, yet the issue needs more study. [30]
According to distributor Elixa Peak Performance, CES works best as a treatment (not a cure) for the anxiety, insomnia and depression that comes as a byproduct of stress. But the web site also suggests that it can treat a number of other stress related disorders as well as boost IQ and peak performance. [31]
In contrast, physician Dr. Stephen Barret of Quackwatch takes issue with those who claim benefits beyond approved uses or distributors who sell devices with commercial nutritional programs. He does concede that CES has shown effectiveness for anxiety and possible other uses. But he then points out that physicians, naturopaths or chiropractors (who prescribe CES most) might not be qualified to diagnose and treat neuropsychological problems. He further states that it’s better to get to the root of a problem than only treat symptoms. [32]
Writing on behalf of the Houston VA Pain Management Program, psychologists Dr. Gabriel Tan and Dr. Julie Alvarez argue for integrating CES and self hypnosis into multidisciplinary pain treatment programs. Clinic patients usually have intense chronic pain, not helped by analgesics; additionally, they often travel long distances for treatment, having limited means, and social problems. Seeing pain mainly as a physical problem and lacking resources for long treatments, patients often want tangible, fast results. CES and self hypnosis combined therefore meet the need, as they take little time and provide quick results. After getting some measure of relief, patients are often more willing to accept additional psychological help as a part of their treatment plan. [33]
Physician advocates Dr. Marshall F. Gilula and Dr. Paul Barach (in an editorial published by Southern Medical Journal) assert that the device can be a valuable treatment for the approved uses of anxiety, depression, and insomnia. While physicians usually treat those problems with psychoactive drugs, they point out that the medications often pose safety concerns; that is, they have potential for side-effects or dependency. [34] (FDA warnings for selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors used for depression, serve as a prime example.) [35] Like psychoactive drugs, CES does require ongoing medical supervision, but it doesn’t have the same potential
for problems. Ultimately, they maintain that CES is of great value as a safe, non-drug

alternative which can reduce or sometimes even replace medication use. They say that while CES is not a miracle cure, it is at least worthy of consideration. [36]
References

Kirsch DL, Smith RB. Cranial electrotherapy stimulation for anxiety, depression, insomnia, cognitive dysfunction, and pain: a review and meta-analysis. In: Rosch, PJ, Markov, MS, eds. Bioelectric Medicine. Mineral Wells, TX: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 2004: 3-27. Available at: . Accessed December 6, 2006.
Smith RB. Scientific electromedicine. Positive Health. September 2003: 8.
Kirsch DL. A practical protocol for electromedical treatment of pain: cranial electrotherapy stimulation. In: Kirsch, DL, ed. 6th ed. Pain Management: A Practical
Guide for Clinicians. Boca Raton, FL: Greenwood Press; 2002: 1 -6. Available at: . Accessed December 6, 2006.
Smith RB. Scientific electromedicine. Positive Health. September 2003: 8.
Kirsch DL. A practical protocol for electromedical treatment of pain: cranial electrotherapy stimulation. In: Kirsch, DL, ed. 6th ed. Pain Management: A Practical
Guide for Clinicians. Boca Raton, FL: Greenwood Press; 2002: 1 -6. Available at: . Accessed December 6, 2006.
Gilula M, Barach P. Cranial electrotherapy stimulation: a safe neuromedical treatment for anxiety, depression, or insomnia. Southern Medical Journal. 2004; 12:1269 -1270.
Kirsch DL, Giordano, J. Cranialelectrotherapy. Natural Medicine. 2006; 23:118-120. Available at: . Accessed December 6, 2006.
Kirsch, DL. A practical protocol for electromedical treatment of pain: cranial electrotherapy stimulation. In: Kirsch, DL, ed. 6th ed. Pain Management: A Practical
Guide for Clinicians. Boca Raton, FL: Greenwood Press; 2002: 1-6. Available at: . Accessed December 6, 2006.
Kirsch, DL. A practical protocol for electromedical treatment of pain: cranial electrotherapy stimulation. In: Kirsch, DL, ed. 6th ed. Pain Management: A Practical
Guide for Clinicians. Boca Raton, FL: Greenwood Press; 2002: 1 -6. Available at: . Accessed December 6, 2006.
Klawansky S, Yeung A, Berkey C, Shah N, Phan H, Chalmers, TC. Meta-analysis of Randomized controlled trial of cranial electrostimulation. Efficacy in treating selected psychological and physiological conditions. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases. 1995; 7:478-484.
Ferjallah MB, Francis X, Barr RE. Potential and current density distributions of cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES) in a four-concentric spheres model. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. 1996; 939-943.
Schroeder M, Barr R. Quantitative analysis of the electroencephalogram during cranial electrotherapy stimulation. Clinical Neurophysiology: Official Journal of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. 2001; 11:2075-2083.
Giordano, J. How alpha-stim cranial electrothrerapy stimulation (CES) works. Alpha – Stim Technology Web site. Available at: http://alphastim.com/Information/Technology/Giordano/how_ces_ works.html. Accessed December 18, 2006.
Neuroscience for Kids. The autonomic nervous system. Neuroscience for Kids Web site. Available at: http://faculty.washington.edu.chudler/auto.html. Accessed December 17, 2006.
Giordano, J. How alpha-stim cranial electrothrerapy stimulation (CES) works. Alpha – Stim Technology Web site. Available at: http://alphastim.com/Information/Technology/Giordano/how_ces_ works.html. Accessed December 18, 2006.
Kirsch DL, Smith RB. Cranial electrotherapy stimulation for anxiety, depression, insomnia, cognitive dysfunction, and pain: a review and meta-analysis. In: Rosch, PJ, Markov, MS, eds. Bioelectric Medicine. Mineral Wells, TX: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 2004: 3-27. Available at: . Accessed December 6, 2006.
Klawansky S, Yeung A, Berkey C, Shah N, Phan H, Chalmers TC. Meta-analysis of Randomized controlled trial of cranial electrostimulation. Efficacy in treating selected psychological and physiological conditions. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases. 1995; 7:478-484.
Gilula M, Barach P. Cranial electrotherapy stimulation: a safe neuromedical treatment for anxiety, depression, or insomnia. Southern Medical Journal. 2004; 12:1269-1270.
Gilula M, Barach P. Cranial electrotherapy stimulation: a safe neuromedical treatment for anxiety, depression, or insomnia. Southern Medical Journal. 2004; 12:1269 -1270.
Barret R. “Be wary of nutripax and the nutripax network”. Quackwatch Web site. Available at: http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/ces.html.
Accessed November 21, 2006.
Klawansky S, Yeung A, Berkey C, Shah N, Phan H, Chalmers, TC. Meta-analysis of Randomized controlled trial of cranial electrostimulation. Efficacy in treating selected psychological and physiological conditions. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases. 1995; 7:478-484.
Kirsch DL. A Practical protocol for electromedical treatment of pain: cranial electrotherapy stimulation. In: Kirsch, DL, ed. 6th ed. Pain Management: A Practical Guide for Clinicians. Boca Raton, FL: Greenwood Press; 2002: 1-6. Available at: .
Accessed December 6, 2006.
Klawansky S, Yeung A, Berkey C, Shah N, Phan H, Chalmers, TC. Meta-analysis of Randomized controlled trial of cranial electrostimulation. Efficacy in treating selected psychological and physiological conditions. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases. 1995; 7:478-484.
Elixa Peak Being. Cranial electrical stimulation (CES) for neurotransmitter balancing, mood control, IQ gains, sleep, exploration of altered states, peak performance, and much more. Elixa

Peak Being Web site. Available at:http://www.elixa.com/estim/CES.htm Accessed November 21, 2006.

Kirsch DL. A Practical protocol for electromedical treatment of pain: cranial electrotherapy stimulation. In: Kirsch, DL, ed. 6th ed. Pain Management: A Practical Guide for Clinicians. Boca Raton, FL: Greenwood Press; 2002: 1-6. Available at: .
Accessed December 6, 2006.
Kirsch DL, Giordano, J. Cranialelectrotherapy. Natural Medicine. 2006; 23:118 -120. Available at: . Accessed December 6, 2006.
Collins WG. Book review: the science behind cranial electrotherapy stimulation. NeuroRehabilitation. 2000; 2:123.
Kirsch DL, Giordano J. Cranialelectrotherapy. Natural Medicine. 2006; 23:118 -120. Available at: . Accessed December 6, 2006.
Kirsch DL, Smith RB. Cranial electrotherapy stimulation for anxiety, depression, insomnia, cognitive dysfunction, and pain: a review and meta-analysis. In: Rosch, PJ, Markov, MS, eds. Bioelectric Medicine. Mineral Wells, TX: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 2004: 3 -27. Available at: . Accessed December 6, 2006.
Aetna clinical policy bulletin. Transcranial magnetic stimulation and cranial electrical stimulation. August 29, 2006. Aetna Web site. Available at: http://www.aetna.com/cpb/data/CPBA0469.html. Accessed December 16, 2006.
Elixa Peak Being. Cranial electrical stimulation (CES) for neurotransmitter balancing, mood control, IQ gains, sleep, exploration of altered states, peak performance, and much more. Elixa Peak Being Web site. Available at:http://www.elixa.com/estim/CES.htm
Accessed November 21, 2006.
Barret S. “Be wary of nutripax and the nutripax network”. Quackwatch Web site. Available at: http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/ces.html.
Accessed November 21, 2006.
Tan G, Alvaraz JA, Jensen M. Complementary and alternative medicine approaches to pain management. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2006; 11:1419-1431.
Gilula M, Barach P. Cranial electrotherapy stimulation: a safe neuromedical treatment for anxiety, depression, or insomnia. Southern Medical Journal. 2004; 12:1269 -1270.
FDA: U.S. index to drug specific information. U.S. Food and Drug Administration – Center for Drug Evaluation and Research Web site. November 20, 2006. Available at:http://www.fda.gov/cder/drug/DrugSafety/DrugIndex.htm. Accessed November 22, 2006.
Gilula M, Barach P. Cranial electrotherapy stimulation: a safe neuromedical treatment for anxiety, depression, or insomnia. Southern Medical Journal. 2004; 12:1269-1270
Biomed Tech (Berl). 2008 Jun;53(3):104-11. doi: 10.1515/BMT.2008.022.

[A novel transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation leads to brainstem and cerebral activations measured by functional MRI].
Dietrich S1, Smith J, Scherzinger C, Hofmann-Preiss K, Freitag T, Eisenkolb A, Ringler R.

Author information
Abstract
BACKGROUND:
Left cervical vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) using the implanted NeuroCybernetic Prosthesis (NCP) can reduce epileptic seizures and has recently been shown to give promising results for treating therapy- resistant depression. To address a disadvantage of this state-of-the-art VNS device, the use of an alternative transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation technique, designed for muscular stimulation, was studied. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been used to test non-invasively access nerve structures associated with the vagus nerve system. The results and their impact are unsatisfying due to missing brainstem activations. These activations, however, are mandatory for reasoning, higher subcortical and cortical activations of vagus nerve structures. The objective of this study was to test a new parameter setting and a novel device for performing specific (well-controlled) transcutaneous VNS (tVNS) at the inner side of the tragus. This paper shows the feasibility of these and their potential for brainstem and cerebral activations as measured by blood oxygenation level dependent functional MRI (BOLD fMRI).
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
In total, four healthy male adults were scanned inside a 1.5-Tesla MR scanner while undergoing tVNS at the left tragus. We ensured that our newly developed tVNS stimulator was adapted to be an MR-safe stimulation device. In the experiment, cortical and brainstem representations during tVNS were compared to a baseline.
RESULTS:
A positive BOLD response was detected during stimulation in brain areas associated with higher order relay nuclei of vagal afferent pathways, respectively the left locus coeruleus, the thalamus (left >> right), the left prefrontal cortex, the right and the left postcentral gyrus, the left posterior cingulated gyrus and the left insula. Deactivations were found in the right nucleus accumbens and the right cerebellar hemisphere.
CONCLUSION:
The method and device are feasible and appropriate for accessing cerebral vagus nerve structures, respectively. As functional patterns share features with fMRI BOLD, the effects previously studied with the NCP are discussed and new possibilities of tVNS are hypothesised

Migraine patients find pain relief in electrical brain stimulation
Migraine patients find pain relief in electrical brain stimulation

This is not something new to the treatment of pain at all (Immediate effects of tDCS on the μ-opioid system of a chronic pain patient) and has in fact been used for all sorts of chronic pain from fibromyalgia to neuropathic to pain from chronic injury. The idea being to find the location in the brain that has been rewired by pain, pulse in this electrical current, and the areas can be in effect changed to respond differently over the treatment period. For certain types of injuries the research has been promising and it will be interesting to see if it can be useful in conditions where more areas of the brain are being stimulated and affected, such as migraines… the area being stimulated that seems to help with this treatment is the motor cortex.

The effects were cumulative and kicked in after about four weeks of treatment, said Alexandre DaSilva, assistant professor at the U-M School of Dentistry and lead author of the study, which appears in the journal Headache.
„This suggests that repetitive sessions are necessary to revert ingrained changes in the brain related to chronic migraine suffering,” DaSilva said, adding that study participants had an average history of almost 30 years of migraine attacks.
The researchers also tracked the electric current flow through the brain to learn how the therapy affected different regions.
„We went beyond, 'OK, this works,'” DaSilva said. „We also showed what possible areas of the brain are affected by the therapy.”
They did this by using a high-resolution computational model. They correctly predicted that the electric current would go where directed by the electrodes placed on the subject’s head, but the current also flowed through other critical regions of the brain associated with how we perceive and modulate pain. „Previously, it was thought that the electric current would only go into the most superficial areas of the cortex,” DaSilva said. „We found that pain-related areas very deep in the brain could be targeted.”
Other studies have shown that stimulation of the motor cortex reduces chronic pain. However, this study provided the first known mechanistic evidence that tDCS of the motor cortex might work as an ongoing preventive therapy in complex, chronic migraine cases, where attacks are more frequent and resilient to conventional treatments, DaSilva said.
While the results are encouraging, any clinical application is a long way off, DaSilva said.
„This is a preliminary report,” he said. „With further research, noninvasive motor cortex stimulation can be in the future of adjuvant therapy for chronic migraine and other chronic pain disorders by recruiting our own brain analgesic resources.”
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
A Comparison of Brain Activity between Healthy Subjects and Stroke Patients on fMRI by Acupuncture Stimulation

Seung·Yeon Cho’, Mia Kim’,Jong Joo Sun’.Geon-Ho Jahng’, Hengjun J Kim’,Seong·Uk Park’, Woo·Sang Jung’, Chang-Nam Ko’,and Jung-MiPark’

ABSTRACT Objecttve: Toinvestigate brain actlvlty pattems during aCtJpuncturein stroke patients, and to compare the result wi1h normal subjects using functional magnetlc resonanee lmag 119 (!MRI). Metbods:A tolal of 11 stroke patients wi111 motor weakness and 10 healtlly subjeets were studied.IMRI was peormed duńng acupuncture on the łeft side at po nts Quchi (ll11) and Zusanli (ST36). Data were anałyzed using statistioeal pararmetric maps of brain actlvation lnduced by acupuncture st mu ation. Rtsults: The results showed tlilat
slimu ation Olbolh LI11 and ST36 produosd signifocantly different brainactivation pattems between the two groops.
The oormalgroop sllowed agreateroverallactivation 1hanl1he stroke group. In1he normal groop,pallS Ol1hefrontal lobe, palietal lobe, sub-łobar,cerebellum and mien 1he left ST36 was stimulated in 1he normalgroup,bo1h sides of 1he frontallobe,pańetallob&,tempora!lobe, and sub-lobar,and the left sicie of occipitallobe, and the right side of cerebelłum and midbrain regions were activated.
For line same stimulation in 1he strołeeimaglng,stroka, Ll11,ST36, basa! ganglia

Acupuncture has been used tolreat slroke for thousands of years.There has been much research done on the effectiveness of acupuncture in stroke recovery and has shown positive conclus o1ls in
some clinical trials.c1· 1 Most of previous functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMAI) studies related to acupuneture suggest that stimułation of specific points activated certain brain a’eas.1••> The theory
for point specificity of acupuncture is supported by
severa! r-ecent fMRI studies .1.,.„• However, when
acupunct.urists treat patients, they usually regard the condi ion of each indivi<fual patient rather !han using a standard protoool;even if acupuncture is applied at the same points in different individuals,the effect may be differenl. However, several acupuncture studies arein progress wi h heallhy subjecls and patienls, therefore,it is necessary to compare the results of
the same treatment between healthy subjects and patients.P1&-’8ł

The acupuncture points Quchi (Ll11) and Zusanli (ST36) are frequently used in stroke patients. These points are often usefulin the treatment ot both hemiplegia and rehabilitalion for motor functional

impairment after stroke.

The objective of this study was to invest gate brain activity pattems during acupuncture stimulation in stroke pal ents with basal ganglia infarction, and 10 oompare areas that were activated in stroke patients and in normal subjects. The hypothesis underłying this study was thai !he same acupunclure may have a different effect on stroke patients thanildoes on healthy oontrols.
METHODS
Subjects
A tolal of 10 healthy, righ·handed volunleers (5

C The Cłlinese Journal ot Integrated Traditional and Westem Medieine Pr0$$ and Spr-…ger·Verlag Serlin Heidelberg 2013 1.Oepartment of Cardiobgf and Nel#Ology of Korean Medicine. College ot Korean Medicine. Kyung Hee University. Seoul. Korea: 2.Oepartmenł of Radlo!o91,Kyung Hee Universlty Hosplla! al G.angdong. College of Medicine.Kyung Hee UrWversity. Seoul. Korea;3.OMsbnof Magner.ic Resonanoe Aesearch. Korea Basic Scierceln&l tule.Ch@ongM>ngun. Chur9Juk,Korea CorrC$J)()ndence co:Or.Jung Mi PMI..Tel:82·2440-6216. Ft\X: 82 2441).7171,E mail:pajamaOkhu.ac.kr 001:10.1007/$11655·013-1436-4

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Brain Wave Measurement and Frequencies of Healers
The fact that the brain emits measurable frequencies has been known since the beginning of the last century. In the 1960s, it was discovered that a person could exert some control over these frequencies and the term “biofeedback” was coined to describe this process. With the advent of increased computing power and a deeper understanding of the brain, the research focus is now on “neurofeedback.” The year 2010 saw the first hard evidence of neuroplastic changes occurring directly in the brain after voluntary control of brain rhythms. (T. Ros et al., Endogenous control of waking brain rhythms induces neuroplasticity in humans)

The range of brain frequencies has been divided up and named as follows:

• Delta (0 to 4 Hz) – deep nighttime sleep
• Theta (4 to 7 Hz) – dreams at night and trance state of somnambulism
• Alpha (8 to 12 Hz) – background brain activity in the waking state. (Named alpha because it was the first one discovered by Hans Berger in 1908.)
• Beta (12 to 30 Hz) – awake, alert, focused
• Gamma (30 to 100 Hz) – certain cognitive or motor functions

The diagrams below are a 3D representation of brain wave patterns recorded using an IBVA recorder. Across the width of the diagram is the frequency from delta on the left to gamma on the right. Time is recorded in the length of the strip – each diagram being about a five-minute segment of time. Amplitude is shown in the height in microvolts.

The first diagram is that of a client in a non-focused state and shows a random distribution across the ranges. The second diagram shows the coherence and specificity in Jack’s brain as he works with the Reconnective Healing® energy frequencies. The left and right hemispheres of the brain appear in separate windows. The left window represents the left hemisphere of the person. Recordings made in September 2010.

Note: These EEG (Electroencephalography) experiments were done by Jean- Charles Chabot, a hypnotherapist specialized in Life Between Lives spiritual hypnosis, who uses the IBVA recorder in his practice. (www.life-between-lives.ca).

Note: Jean-Charles and I carried out these experiments without knowing whether such an experiment had been done before. On October 29, 2012, reading Ervin
Laszlo’s Science and the Akashic Field, (p. 152-153) I discovered a description of a similar experiment showing the same result and giving a bit more information about the condition. Laszlo’s book was first published in 2004, a new edition appeared in 2007 both from Inner Traditions in Vermont.
„An experiment carried out in the presence of this writer took place in southern Germany in the spring of 2001. At a seminar attended by about a hundred people, Dr. Günter Haffelder, head of the Institute for Communication and Brain Research of Stuttgart, measured the EEG patterns of Dr. Maria Sági, a trained psychologist and gifted natural healer, together with that of a young man who volunteered from among the participants. The young man remained in the seminar hall while the healer was taken to a separate room. Both the healer and the young man were wired with electrodes, and their EEG patterns were projected on a large screen in the hall. The healer diagnosed the health problems of the subject, while he sat with closed eyes in a light meditative state. When the healer found the subject’s areas of organic dysfunction, she sent information designed to compensate for it. During the approximately fifteen minutes that the healer was concentrating on her task, her EEG waves dipped into the deep Delta region (between 0 and 3 Hz per second), with a few sudden eruptions of wave amplitude. This was surprising in itself, because when someone’s brain waves descend into the Delta region, he or she is usually in a state of deep sleep. But the healer was fully awake, in a state of intense concentration. Even more surprising was that the test subject exhibited the same Dela-wave pattern–it showed up in his EEG display about two seconds after it appeared in the EEG of the healer. Yet they had no sensory contact with each other.”

ADHD Cure

Accurate Diagnosis of ADHD

It is important to rule these conditions out of the diagnosis, because if it can be determined that one of these is the cause, then you can attempt to treat these conditions, and the ADHD symptoms are very likely to go away. It could be that if one of these conditions are present ADHD may still be present and these may be making those symptoms worse. For example: A sleep deprived child can begin to show „Off the wall” behaviors. That sleep deprivation can be caused by all sorts of things including snoring because of swollen tonsils, or sinusitis that prevents them from getting adequate sleep.

Natural ADHD Cures – Herbal Remedies

Science of Brain Exercises

Brain Map Frontal Lobe

Praise for ADHD Cure Brain Exercises to Cure ADHD

Brain Exercises to Cure ADHD

Summary – ADHD Cure

James’ Story – A vignette on a child with high-functioning autism.
My youngest son James has been diagnosed with high-functioning autism. At the time I am writing this he is seven, having just had a birthday in July. When he was about four years old, I realized he wasn’t progressing as quickly as other children were. When he turned five, I felt he wasn’t ready for kindergarten so I held him back from school, thinking he just needed more time to mature. By the time he turned six, I knew he still wasn’t ready for school. He seemed to have a learning delay that limited him from progressing mentally at the same rate as other children.
I had heard about an assessment testing program at the University of Utah, where students of the Educational Psychology program did assessments on kids as part of their education, their testing is closely overseen by licensed therapists for accuracy. I decided to have James assessed to see why he had this delayed progression in his learning ability.
After several sessions of testing, James’ assessor wanted to have him meet with an autistic specialist because she saw a couple of behavioral traits in him that could signify autism. So I agreed to have this licensed therapist, who specialized in dealing with autistic children, meet with James to see if she felt he was autistic. She came back with the diagnosis that he is indeed autistic. She felt that he is very high functioning and that he is a visual learner, if he sees things he learns much quicker. However, he has a problem processing abstract concepts such as „yesterday, today, and tomorrow” or sequencing „What comes before or after” like with the letters of the alphabet.
I was encouraged by an expert in the field of psychology, who has tremendous experience with cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES) devices and its science, Charles McCusker, Ph.D. to use one on James for 45 minutes every day or as often as possible for a six weeks. So I did. When I started using the device, I would say that James was at about the level of a three year old mentally though he would be turning seven in about 1½ months.
After about four weeks, I noticed a significant increase in his communication skills. He used to talk a lot but most of it was repeating or mimicking phrases he heard in

cartoons, but now he was actually speaking more to us (our family) about everything. He responded to our questions with appropriate answers and often initiated conversations with us. Before, he might introduce a new phrase very infrequently, maybe once a month. After using the CES device, he started saying many new phrases daily. That was a huge jump in his progression. It was like his brain was processing information better and faster.
One night when I thought he was asleep, I was trying to pull a blanket out from under him to cover him with it, he woke up enough to say „It’s OK Mom I don’t need it”. That, to me, was incredible that he had the cognitive reasoning to first, understand my intentions without me saying anything to him and then to tell me he didn’t need the blanket because he wasn’t cold. That was something he never would have done before I used the CES device on him. He’s done many other similar things since then.
He also had a lot of OCD (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder) like behaviors that he did, like watching which colored tiles he stepped on when he walked through the house or being very particular about closing and locking cabinet doors and the refrigerator door with the baby locks we still had on them from when he was younger. After using the CES, he would run through the house without caring where he stepped and I often have to remind him to close the fridge door. Not a good thing I know, but much more the behavior you would expect from a normal young child. I see it as a sign that there is hope of him developing into a normal functioning adult who can live a normal life.
As I said before, when I began using the CES device on him I felt he was mentally at the level of a three year old, after six weeks of using the CES device, I feel he’s more like a four year old. I might add here that I got a little lax about using the device on him every day, (usually, when he was sleeping) and now I’ve seen him watch which tiles he steps on again so I’ve started using it on him daily again. I feel confident that the old behaviors he started doing again will stop after a few weeks of using the device and I’ve decided it’s a good idea to keep using it frequently.
If you have a loved one with autism, I highly recommend trying a CES device on them. I’m certain you will see some measure of success with increasing their brain function. By the way, I’ve also been using this device on myself and have seen my memory and focus improve significantly.
Best wishes in your own success, James’ mom

What a happy New Year it was for „Bob”. Our story begins on December 3, 2003 when he and his family came to see me with a rather urgent question, i.e., to help in assessing and addressing his health and behavioral issues. First medical examinations/testing, diagnoses were arranged. The consensus; His general health was in danger of deeteriorating if specific behavioral and life-style patterns continued. The key elements of his diagnosis; chronic anxiety, insomnia, low levels of self-control, discipline, and confidence. This pattern had been ongoing for more than 10 years. His own attempts at self-medication involved heavy alcohol and Xanax use (a synergistically toxic combination), and an addiction to nicotine.
Because of „Bob’s” high motivation , and a really good attitude, we agreed to undertake what I considered to be an optimal option. We began by having him trace his hand on paper, so that we could have a visual symbol of a five point plan that could result in a successful outcome. Each digit would represent one point: 1.) Self-Love and Acceptance 2.) Education 3.) Exercise 4.) Medication and Stress Control 5.) Nutrition
In the palm of his hand, the letters CES were printed. Then we taped it to the wall. The objective for now was for him to be calm and relaxed for four to five days in a designed environment while focusing on and actually incorporating the five components. „Bob” had already gained a feeling of confidence in his CES unit (Health-Pax) by being wel informed and using it daily for 10 days at 100 hz.
Now here comes the fun. As much as possible, I wanted him to be unaware of the time of day. (My previous experiences indicated that persons withdrawing from substances tended to have symptom patterns somehow associated with times of day and circadian rhythms. It was as if they would expect and possibly even program discomforts at particular times.. If we can keep them engaged in the plan, relaxed, content and feeling cared for, it can make a big difference.)
This means brown paper and taping all outside light sources, windows, bottom of doors, etc., no radio/tv but lots of funny movies on DVD, music, and telephone conversations – only with those who know about no time tip-offs. (Wait, did we cover the microwave clock with tape?) All of this may sound a little daunting, but it can be done, when the challenge is accepted by a small team (three of us). Can you imagine one preparing meals that must be time neutral, and not forgetting to say „good morning”?
Well, by day three, „Bob” had gone for three days without alcohol or a cigarette (a first for him in about fifteen years). The Xanax plan was follow a progressive deduction in dosage for a specific period (MD advisory). It is now five months of follow-up, and „Bob” and his family assure me that it still is a Happy New Year for all of them.

Summary: The success of our plan can clearly be attributed to; „Bob’s” excellent attitude, motivation and his general commitment to following our script; a dedicated assistant who was present and on-call 24 hours, and took care of logistics, meals, etc.; and a firm belief that the CES protocol helped to potentiate and synergize all of the components and elements of the plan.

Advances in Brain Theory Give New Directions
to the Use of the Technologies
of Brain Mapping in Behavioral Studies *
W.J.FR&MAN 1 and K. MAIJR.EJl 2

Brain as a Dynamie System

The human brain, for all its complexity and power, is a physical and chemical system that performs its miracles in a pbysical and chemical world operating by the same dynamie laws. The entire profession of electroencepha lography is based on the premise that observations and measurements of the electromag netic fields of potentia!at the surface of the scalp and brain, when taken in close conjunction with measurements of behavior, will tell us something about how the brain works and in wbat ways it can malfunction in disordered states of behavior.
W.bat we mean by „how the brain works” is an cxplanation in physicochemi cal terms of how the brain accepts extemal information from the outside world by way of its sensory receptors and transforms that input first to its owo internat information content about the world and then to orderly sequences of muscular contraction. By way of an analogy witb a macbine, or more generally a bomolo gy with a naturally occurring „self-organizing” pbysicocbemical system, we can say tbat the brain is a dynamie system that acccpts input, operates on it to transform it in different ways, and then gives an output. The definition and description of each operation requires that we know enough about lhe space-time patterns of the input and of the output of each transforming step, so tbat we can say what must be done to change the former into the latter. For example, onemay shine a spot of light onto the retina, measure the discharge patterns of the receptors and of the ganglion cells, and infer that the rctina operates oo its input (light patterns) to give spatially filtered patterns of action potentials on the optic tract that represent the „sharpened „(contrast-enhanced) stimulus images to the brain.
It is implicit in this description that two kinds of i nformation are to be found in electroencepbalograhic and m.agnetoe ncepbalographic measurements of brain activity. One kiod consists of the information content tbat is being operated on by the brain. Brain tbeory, including the experimental studies on wh.ich it is based, tells us that, except for the activity of sensory receptors,

• Tbis work was supported by grant MH06686 from the National Institute of Mental Health. Urtited States Pubuc Health Service. The work with human subjects was donc following the guidclines of the Uoiversity of Wiir burg.
1 Department of Pbysiology-Anatomy, Univcrsity of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA _
2 Dcpartmcnt of Psychiatry, University of Wiirzburg, Fiichsleinstralle 15, 8700 Wiirzbu rg, Federat Republic of Gennany

Topographic Brain Mapping of EEG and Evoked Potntials
Ed. by K. Maurer
C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1989

Ad\’allCCS ln Brain Theot’)’ Givc New Ditcctions to the Use o( the Tccbnologies 119

lhis brain activity does not serve to tepresent sensory Stimuli ao.; they actually impingc on rcc::cptors . lt scrves to embody o.nd convcy concepls that the sensory stimuli release, trigger, or enter into.On the motor sidc the brain aclivity does not la,y aclion pattcrns or „oommands” onto motor neurons, but instcad ini tiatcs conccptual trends or trajectories, which are shaped at the lcvel of the spinał cord by proprioccptivc feedback into spcciłic 1novemcnts abat instantiate I.he conoepts. Henoe the corrclatcs of brain activity arc not specific stimuli -..nd rcspon but arc pcroepts aod oonoepts that bavc bccn cstablishc<l by prior learniog (Freeman 197S, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1987; Freeman and Skarda 1985; Skarda and Freeman 1987).
The other kind of information concems not the content but 1be operations done on the contcnt. lt eonsists of the unfolding or maoifestation of the opera tions bcing done on the conceptual information.When a stimulus is dclivercd to an area of cortcx. it is ampliricd, nonnalized, intcgratcd over time and space. sharpcned, and thcn forced into a decision trec for the sc1cclion of an appro priate concept. These severa] operations arc 1nanifcsted by a collection of eleclri cal cvcnts having spccific s:ignatures by which thcy can be idcntificd and mca
surcd.Within the brain, one concept c.ascades into a1id through the ncxt,mean·
ing that one vortcx of neural ac1ivity fccds into and triggcrs the nex.t. cach transition giving rise to its own characteristic signa1ure or electrical 0 noise·· as i_n the operation of a mnchine, until the output is broug.ht to oomplction.
lt is the business of brain mapping, among other tasks, to f’ind, read and mcasure thcse signatures of brain operations. But in order that we interpret thcse signs corrcctly, \’C must koo\v what the operations are, and ror this \.’C
must kno’v the •• before··and „after „patterns of the conceptual neural informa
tion for cach operation. ln this task we arc assisted by the f’indings of brain theory, whieh leli us whe-rc und how to look fot this cortocptual i1,forma1io1t ; it is to be found not in tbc tcmporal patterns of brain wavcs, bul in thcir spatial configuratioos. Brain theory tells us that concepts occur as brief (ca. JOO ms) wave packct.S-, for whicb a common osciUatory wavcfonn cx.is1s among hundreds of miUions of neurons in domains of cortcx that may cxtend over 1cn.s of squarc centimeters of corti<:a l tissue. The cootcnt of the conc:cpt is expressed in the amplitude modulation of the common waveform in its entire spatial ex1ent. The opera1ions of fonnation, transmission and 1ennina1ion of the concept arc ex.prcssed in the tempora( amplitude modulation and temporal Spet.. rum of the com1non waveform .
Tbis distinguishing set of charactcristics cxists by virtuc of tbc naturc of the dynamies that g.ives risc to the neural activity of conccpis. In essence the processes of generation are self·organizing. When a large collection of s.emi· autonomous ele1ne1ns such as cortical neurons is allowcd or e1icouraged to intcract ex.tcnsivcly. cach wilh vcry many othcrs in its surround, thcn a coopera· 1ivc entity cnierges that exists as a macroscopic or large-scałc systeni having much largcr spath1l and tcmporał scałcs than its componcnt havc. The coopcra- 1.ive in1en1ction gives rise to the common wavcform that is found over the entire cxtent of the intcrJctivc mass of neurons,and tbat scrves as lbe „carrłer wave •·of the concc.ptual inforn1ation. This infor1natio11 does not appear in tbe unavcragcd :J;Ctivity of single ncurons, but only in large aventgcs or sun1s;

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VISłO!’llCENTRAL NEUROl\EPORT

Oscillatory brain activity and transcranial direct
current stimulation in humans

Andrea AntaI .cA Edina T. Varga, Tamas Z.Kincses, Michael A. Nitsche and Walter Paulus

Ocprtmcnt ot Clinial Ncurophpiolog)t Georg.August l.kli’YCrsit). Rob.ut Kodi Stn& '40.17075 Gcittingcn, Gcrma11

C.&.correspondins Author:A.Atia.l@lwdJ.de

001:I0.1097/0l.wnr.0000127’460.08361.3. 4

INTRODUCTION
The .scaJp-recorded visual evoked potentia ! (VEP) reflects the massed activity of a large number oi neumns of the hu.man visual oortex. Evidence obtained from dynamie random dot kinetogra m dichotic VEPs, &om human intracerebral and &om colour-evoked potentia] recordings,
shm.\’S that the N70 component Ls the earliest VEP peak of corticaJ origin 11,21. An increase in high frequency oscilla tory activity in the beta and gamma frequency ranges is dosely related in time to the N70 peak of the VEP 13.41. ln addition. oscillatory el.ectrophysio1ogica1 activity of the hu.man brain, especially in the gamma range (:lO-{,(ł ł'[z),
seems to be associated with different stages of perception and learning (for a review see(SJ).The aim of thjsstudy is to
induce changes of the ac;..:iJJ.atory ad:ivity in the visual cortex of healthy human subjects by modulation of neuronal excitabi)jty using \teak tr.anscraniaJ direct current stimula tion (tDCS}. tOCS is a non-invash•e stimulation method which offer.; the possibility to indure prolrn1ged excilability changes i.n the motor a nd visual cortices, as reported by severa) animal studies 6-81. The.o;e early $ludies revealed
that.. depending on the direction of the current in the targeted brain area, cathodal tDC’S reduces spontatleOUS fuing rates oi corticaJ cells, most likeły by hyperpo1arizing the cell body, white anoda! stimulation results in a reversOO effect. Tn hum.ans. the method of a non-invasive weak tDCS was recently re-introduced. lt has been shown to modula te motor cortex excitabi1ity in a polarity-1’pecific \ray: cathodaJ tCX:S djminished the amp1itude- of the motor e\oked

potentia! (tvfEP), while anoda!stimulation increased it [91 In the visual modality. cathodal tDCS over the primary visual cortex enhances stationary phosphene thresholds (P’Ts} \Vhereas anodal stimulation decreases them ( 101. Cathodal tOCS also reduces the amplitude of the N70 component of the VEP white anoda.I stimu1ation increases it 1111. lt has also been observed that tDCS mod.ifies the contrast perception threshold (12f. The effect.s elicited by tDCS are not restricted to the duration o:f stimulation itself, but can continue iistimulation intensities and durations are sufficient 19,11,13,141. Howeo.•er, the durations of the induced after-effects are different for dHferent cortica1areas: over the motor cortex the induced after-effects last longer than those induced over the visual rortex.
tDCS can also modify higher-order oogniti\’e processes. Function.al studies revea1ed thai in humans, both anoda)
and cathodal tDCS rould hinder usependent motor cortical plasticity 1151. whereas anoda! stimu)ation of the primary motorcortex impro\’·es implicit motor learning (161. Furthermore, cathodal stimulation oi the left V5 enhances visui>motor periormance ( 171.
There Lo; growing evidence thai Changes in oscillatory activity of the brain play important mies in the formation of perceptions and memory and therefore they are essential for perceptual and behaviouraJ func:.tion.s f 5l. ft wouJd be of a great interest if these osdll.ations rould be modified by tDCS. The aim of the present study \Vas therefore to
evałuate if tDCS-elkited visual corticaL excitability shifts
areacrompaniecl by a similar change of oscillatory activity.

09S9-’496S () Ucott W.illi s & Wiltins \bi 15 No 8 7 Ju11e '2004 1307
Copyńght © Lippincott Willfams & Wilkins.Unauthorized reproduction of this art cle is prohibited.

Research Shows Music Improves Brain Function

For most people music is an enjoyable, although momentary, form of entertainment. But for those who seriously practiced a musical instrument when they were young, perhaps when they played in a school orchestra or even a rock band, the musical experience can be something more. Recent research shows that a strong correlation exists between musical training for children and certain other mental abilities.

The research was discussed at a session at a recent gathering of acoustics experts in Austin, Texas.

Laurel Trainor, director of the Institute for Music and the Mind at McMaster University in West Hamilton, Ontario, and colleagues

compared preschool children who had taken music lessons with those who did not. Those with some training showed
larger brain responses on a number of sound recognition tests given to the children. Her research indicated that musical training appears to modify the brain’s auditory cortex.

Can larger claims be made for the influence on the brain of musical training? Does training change thinking or cognition in general?

Trainor again says yes. Even a year or two of music training leads to enhanced levels of memory and attention when measured by the same type of tests that monitor electrical and magnetic impulses in the brain.

“We therefore hypothesize that musical training (but not necessarily passive listening to music) affects attention
and memory, which provides a mechanism whereby musical training might lead to better learning across a number of domains,” Trainor said.

Trainor suggested that the reason for this is that the motor and listening skills needed to play an instrument in concert with other people appears to heavily involve attention, memory and the ability to inhibit actions. Merely listening passively to music to Mozart — or any other composer — does not produce the same changes in attention and memory.

Harvard University researcher Gottfried Schlaug has also studied the cognitive effects of musical training. Schlaug and his colleagues found a correlation between early-childhood training in music and enhanced motor and auditory skills as well as improvements in verbal ability and nonverbal reasoning.

The scientists also discovered that different instruments appear to cause a varying modification within the brain. Changes in
the brains of singers occur in slightly different locations than those seen for keyboard or string players.

The correlation between music training and language development is even more striking for dyslexic children.

“[The findings] suggest that a music intervention that strengthens the basic auditory music perception skills of children with dyslexia may also remediate some of their language deficits.” Schlaug said.

Schlaug reports that tone-deaf individuals often have a reduced or absent arcuate fasciculus, a fiber tract connecting the frontal and temporal lobes in the brain. Reduced or damaged arcuate fasciculus has been associated with various acquired language problems like aphasia and also dyslexia in children.

Still more evidence that formal music training strengthens auditory cortex responses came in a study performed by Antoine Shahin, now at Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio. Shahin believes that musical training gives an individual the acoustic responsiveness of a child some 2 – 3 years older. In talking about the affect of music on the brain, he said the studies do not necessarily show that musical training leads to enhanced IQ or creativity.

Shahin said that when a person listens to sounds over and over, especially for something as harmonic or meaningful as music and speech, the appropriate neurons get reinforced in responding preferentially to those sounds compared to other sounds. This neural behavior was examined in a study that looked at the degree of auditory cortex responsiveness to music and non-familiar sounds as a child ages.

Shahin’s main findings are that the changes triggered by listening to musical sound increases with age and the greatest increase occur between age 10 and 13. This most likely indicates this as being a sensitive period for music and speech acquisition.

Glenn Schellenberg from the University of Toronto directly addressed if musical ability makes a person smarter. Such assessments concerning children are always difficult because of the influence of other factors, such as parental income and education. Nevertheless, he found that passive listening to music seems to help a person perform certain cognitive tests, at least in the short run.
Actual music lessons for kids, however, leads to a longer lasting cognitive success.

The effects of musical training on cognition for adults, Schellenberg said, are harder to pin down.

Source: “Music Improves Brain Function,” from livescience.com

V ignette onJames -October 9,2012
James’ Story-A vignette on c chiId with high-functioning autism.
My youngest sonJames has been diagnosed with high-functioning autism. At the time Iam writing this he is seven,havingjust had a birthday inJuly. When he was about tour years ald,Irea lized he wasn’t progressing as quickly as other children were.
When he turned ive,Ifelt he wasn’t ready for kindergarten so Iheld him back from school,thinking he just needed mare time to mature.By the time he turned six,Iknew he stili wasn’t ready for school. He seemed to have a learning de lay that limited him from progressing mentally atthe same rate as other children.
Ihad heard about an assessment testingprogram at the University of Utah,where students of the EducationalPsychology program did assessments on kids as part of their education,their testing is closely overseen by licensed therapists for accuracy.I decided to have James assessed to see why he had this de layed progression in his learning ability.
Alter severaIsessions of testing, James’ assessor wanted to have him meet with an autistic specialist because she saw a couple
of behavioraltraits in him thet could signify autism. So Iagreed to have this licensed therapist, who specialized in dealingwith autistic children,meet withJames to see if she felt he was autistic.She carne back with the diagnosis that he is indeed autistic. She felt that he is very high functioning and that he is a visua l learner,if he sees things he learns much quicker.However,he has a problem processing abstract concepts such as „yesterday, today, and tomorrow” or sequencing „What comes before or alter” like with the letters of the alphabet.
I was encouraged by an expe1t in the f ield of psychology, who has tremendous experience with cranial electrotherapy
stimulation (CES) devices anc its science,Charles McCusker,Ph.O. to use one onJame; for 45 minutes every day or as olten as possible for a six weeks.So Idid.When Istarted using the device,Iwould say that James was at about the levelof a three year ald mentally though he would be turning seven in about lYi months.
Alter about tour weeks,Inoticed a signif icant increase in his communication skills.He used to talk a lot but most of it was
repeatingor mimicking phrases he heard in cartoons,but naw he was actually speaking mare to us (aur family) about everything.He responded toaur questions with appropriate answers and olten initiated conversations with us.Before,he might introduce a new phrase very infrequently, maybe once a month. Alter using the CES device,he started sayingmany new phrases daily.That was a huge jump in his progression. lt was like his brain was processing information better and taster.
One night when Ithought he was asleep,Iwas tryingto pulla blanket out from underhim to cover him with it, he woke up enough to say „lt’s OK Morn I:lon’t need it”.That, to me,was incredible that he had the cognitive reasoning to f irst, understand my intentions without me sayinganything to him and then to tellme he didn’t need the blanket because he wasn’t cold.That
was something he never would have dane before Iused the CES device on him. He’s dane many other similar things since then.
He also had a lot of OCD (Obsessive Compulsive Oisorder) like behaviors that he did,like watching which colored tiles he stepped on when he walked through the house or being very particular about closing and locking cabinet doors and the
refrigerator door with the baby locks we stili had on them from when he was younger.Alter using the CES,he would run through
the house without caring where he stepped and Iolten have to remind him to close the fr idge door.Not a geod thing Iknow, but much mare the behavior you would expect from a normaIyoungchiId.Isee it as a sign that there is hope of him developing inte a normaIfunctioning adult who can live a normaIlife.
As Isa id before,when Ibegan using the CES device on him Ifelt he was mentally at the levelof a three year ald,alter six weeks of using the CES device,IfeeIhe’s mare like a tour year ald.Imight add here that Igat a little lax about using the device on him every day, (usually, when he was sleeping) and naw l’ve seen him watch which tiles he steps on aga in so l’ve started using it on him daily aga in. IfeeIconf ident that the ald behaviors he started doing aga in will stopalter a ew weeks of using the device and l’ve decided it’s a geod idea to keep using it frequently.
lf you have a loved one with autism,Ihighly recommend trying a CES device on them. l’m certa in you will see same measure of success with increasing their brain function. By the way, l’ve also been using this device on myse lf and have seen my memory and focus improve signif icantly.
Best wishes in your own success,from James Morn

A NoN-PHAR MACOLO GY A PPROA CH

Case Study/Vignette on „Bob” – May 20,2004

What a happy New Year it was for „Bob”.Our story begins on December 3, 2003 when he and his family came to see me with a rather urgent question, i.e.,to help in assessing and addressing his health and behavioral issues. First medical examinations/testing, diagnoses were arranged. The consensus; His general health was in danger of deeteriorating if specific behavioral and life-style patterns continued. The key elements of his diagnosis; chronic anxiety, insomnia, low levels of self-control, discipline, and confidence. This pattern had been ongoing for more than 10 years. His own attempts at self medication involved heavy alcohol and Xanax use (a synergistically toxic combination), and an addiction to nicotine.
Because of „Bob’s”high motivation , and a really good attitude, we agreed to undertake what I considered to be
an optimal option. We began by having him t race his hand on paper, so that we could have a visual symbol of a five point plan that could result in a successful outcome. Each digit would represent one point : 1.) Self-Love and Acceptance 2.) Education 3.) Exercise 4.) Medication and St ress Cont rol 5.) Nut rition
In the palm of his hand,the letters CES were printed. Then we taped it to the wall. The objective for now was for him to be calm and relaxed for four to five days in a designed environment while focusing on and actually incorporating the five components.”Bob” had already gained a feeling of confidence in his CES unit (Health·Pax) by being wel informed and using it daily for 10 days at 100 hz.
Now here comes the łun. As much as possible, I wanted him to be unaware of the time of day. (My previous experiences indicated that persons withdrawing from substances tended to have symptom patterns somehow associated with times of day and circadian rhythms.lt was as if they would expect and possibly even program discomforts at particula r times..lf we can keep them engaged in the plan, relaxed, content and feeling cared for, it can make a big difference.)
This means brown paper and tapins all outside light sourees, windows, bottem of doors, etc., no radio/tv but lots of funny movies on DVD, music, and telephone conversations • only with those who know about no time tip·offs. (Wait, did we cover the microwave clock with tape?) All of this may sound a little daunting, but it can be done, when the challenge is accepted by a small team (three of us).Can you imagine one preparing meals that must be time neut ral, and not forgetting to say „good morning”?
Well, by day three,”Bob” had gone for three days without alcohol or a cigarette (a first for him in about fifteen years).The Xanax plan was follow a progressive deduction in dosage for a specific period (MD advisory).lt is now five months of follow up, and „Bob” and his family assure me that it still is a Happy New Year for all of them.
Summary:The sucoess of our plan can clearly be attributed to; „Bob’s” excellent attitude, motivation and his general commitment to following our script; a dedicated assistant who was present and on-call 24 hours, and took care of logistics, meals, etc.; and a firm belief that the CES protocol helped to potentiate and synergize all of the components and elements of the plan.

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Anodał Transcraniał Direct Current Stimuł ation (tDCS) Decreases
the Amplitudes of Long-Latency Stretch Reflexes in Cerebelłar Ataxia

G1uL1ANA GRIMALDIand MARIO MANTO
Uni1C d·Ewdc du Mou\’cmcnt (UE1).ULB Erasmc. ULB Neurologie 808 Routc de Lennik. 1070 Bn1xcllcs. Bclgium
( Rt.•ceii’t•1/ 9 A(’ł’ll lQIJ: llfft’/Jleil Il Juru• 1013:pt1b1Wtl’ll t>t1/lm·19 Jm1e 1011)

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1he m;rnagemem of<:licd O\’Cr dle ccn:bclłum in thtxic paticnts. \Vc studicrove the l\1CT scores and did 1101 modiry posture. \Vc sugg<„.SI th:tt mod(tl 10CS of the ccrtbćllum rcduccs the amplitudcs of LLSR by incrt”as.ing the inhibitory

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INTRODUCTION

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Kcyword.9-0ircct currcnt s1imukttion, Anod:il. Ccrebellum, Long-latency stretch rcflexc:s. Excitubili1y, Plasticity.

A88R F.VIATIONS

Ccrcbcllar disordcrti rcprcscnt a hclcrogcncous group of diseascs. 10 Thcsc disabling disordcrs. also callcd htnnan ccrcbellar ;H;txias. ma nifest pri1narily with a n iinpai rcd con1rol of voluniary rrlovc1ne1u .7 Volt11llary lllO\’Cme1ll is ataxic. affecti1lg 1l01 01lly si n gle·joi nt and 1nulti·joinl n1ovements in lin1bs. but also postu rc. \Vc currenlly lack cfficicnt drug lhcrapics for n1ost of the (.”.Crcbcllar disordcrs cncounlcrcd duri ng daily prac1ice.Thcrc is an urgcn1 nced lO idcnli fy novel s1ralegies to an1agonize cercbclktr motor dcfici1s or lo enhancc lhc effccts of rehabilirn tion on thLs group of dis.abling disorders.
There is a growing interest i n non invasive electrical or magnclic sti1nu lation nlcthods as rcscarch tech·

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niqucs to pro1notc ncuroplasticity or as thcrapcutic
lools. In pnrlicu lnr. transcranial di rect current Slimu la1ion (t DCS} a 1>J)lied over lhe cerebellun1 is a 1001 currently under inve-s1igation 10 speed up learni ng of l’e-aching or adap1a1ion during locornotion.6 9 In t DCS.
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2437

on the scalp. Conti nuous or inlenniuent a nodal tDCS
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Posted in Delice, DIY,Paper I
Trans-cranial Direct Current Stimulation

Intensit.v.,

and Duration Effects on

Tinnitus Suppression
Posted on October 6,2012 by John
2
Tinnirus has been a part of my life for so long I can’t remember not having it. While it doesn 't seem to bother me the way it does others, it can be very annoying, especially when I’m in a very quiet environment, camping for instance.So it would be incredible if a breakthrough in tinniru s treatment were to come along.

Background.Perception of sound in the absence ofan externał auditory source iscalłed tinnitus, which may negativełyaffect quality of life. Anoda! transcrania l direct currentstimulation tDCS of the łeft temp orop arietał area LTA was exp/;Jredfor tinnitus relief Obj ectiv e. Thispi/;Jt study examined tDCS dose current intensity and duration and response eff ectsfor tinnitus
suppression. Methods. 1\venty-fiv eparticipants with chronic tinnitus and a mean age of 54 years
tookpart.Anoda! tDCS of LTA was carried out. Currentintensity 1 mA and 2 mA andduration J O minutes, 15 minutes, and 20 minutes were varied and their imp act on tinnitus measured. Results. tDCS was welł tołerated. Fifty-six p ercent of participants 14 experienced transientsuppression of tinnitus, and 44% ofparticipants 11 experienced /;Jng-term imp rovement ofsymp toms overnight łess annoyance, morerelaxed, and better sleep . There wasan interaction between duration and
intensity of the stimulus on the change inrated /;Judness of tinnitus, F2, 48 = 4.355, P = .018, and
cłinicał g/;Jbał imp rovementscore, F2, 48 = 3.193, P = .0’50, after stimulation. Conclusions.
Current intensity o/ 2 mA/or 20 minutes was the more ejfective stbn1d11s para meterf or anodal tDCS of LTA. tDCS can be a p otential clinical toolfor reduction of timtitus, although longer term trials are needed.
via Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Intensity and Duration Effects on Tinnirus Suppression.

Vincent \Valsh TMS > tDCS & •
l\tligraine
Posled on September 15, 2012 by John
Towards the end of the video (.The Daily Telegraph 2008) Professor Vincent Walsh, (now of
Umversity of Califomia Davi ) discusses tDCS and itspotentia! for therapeutic use.E!pecially of
intf’rp5;:t 1 thf ir.fonn;ition on migr::iinP hP..::i il::i rhp_o:;:·
So, scme migraines are c::wsed ty havir.g too much actMty in th2 visua: brain area,and someare by having too lirtłe activit-1. •4nd we hope tJiat this can baiar.ce out.reverse tJ.atre!ative inactivity in the brain.

C:011IO thi imply th::it onPpt”r on migr inf” r011IO h:- mi tie;::itp wirli (-) whilf another’s might benefit from Anoda!(+) applic>.tion of tDCS? And conversely, does itimply that in1prcpcr sti1nulatio11 would lead to MORL migraincs?

IfI ouffered from migraines and wanted to teot tDCS, here 'o where I’d ot:ut
Ch.:.c..:k. I.he Fishc.1\Vall at:.c Fmd A Doc.Lur eaic..:h pag: fot aLJ ch:.c..:Uulh:1cpisL iu yuu1 a.te.a.
lf they v.IJ treat you for migraine, try a few!essiom.Jf it works, and your doctor will authorize a purchase, you can buyyour own unit (for S700).A FisherWallace device may quality for insurance coerage.
Alternatel y. I \vould monitor the Clinica!Trials.;ov site andkeep an eye out forne\v studies testing tDCS fcr migrainc.And lastly, I would contactmanufacturcrs of othcr tDCS dcviccs a’.ld ask if Łlicy knew of any elecrrolherapypnctitioners in your area working with migraine.Here ·s my shon lin of
r.i’)n11F-, „n1r’!”C’ łl”\ rl”\l’lt’).rt·

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation Accelerates Human Sleep Homeostasis
• Davide Reato mail, Fernando Gasca, Abhishek Datta, Marom Bikson, Lisa Marshall, Lucas C. Parra
• Published: February 14, 2013
• Abstract
• Author Summary
• Introduction
• Results
• Discussion
• Materials and Methods
• Supporting Information
• Acknowledgments
• Author Contributions
• References

• Reader Comments (0)

• Figures
Abstract

The sleeping brain exhibits characteristic slow-wave activity which decays over the course of the night. This decay is thought to result from homeostatic synaptic downscaling. Transcranial electrical stimulation can entrain slow-wave oscillations (SWO) in the human electro- encephalogram (EEG). A computational model of the underlying mechanism predicts that firing rates are predominantly increased during stimulation. Assuming that synaptic homeostasis is driven by average firing rates, we expected an acceleration of synaptic
downscaling duringstimulation, which is compensated by a reduced drive after stimulation. We show that 25 minutes of transcranial electrical stimulation, as predicted, reduced the decay of SWO in the remainder of the night. Anatomically accurate simulations of the field intensities on human cortex precisely matched the effect size in different EEG electrodes. Together these results suggest a mechanistic link between electrical stimulation and accelerated synaptic homeostasis in human sleep.

Author Summary

Sleep pressure is reflected in the power of slow-wave activity: it is high after extended wakefulness and gradually decays in the course of the night. Transcranial stimulation with slow- oscillating currents can entrain electro-encephalographic slow-wave oscillations (SWO) and transiently increase their power. Motivated by the results from a multi-scale computational model, we tested in humans whether 25 minutes of transcranial stimulation attenuates the decay of SWO in the remainder of the night. A Finite-Element Model (FEM) is used to estimate the current flow in the brain and a network model of spiking neurons determines the resultant effect on SWO. This multi-scale model predicted increased neuronal firing rates leading to accelerated synaptic downscaling. As a consequence, the decay of SWO power and spatial coherence after stimulation is reduced. In addition to reduced decay rate, the model was also able to successfully predict, in the human experiments, the spatial distribution of the effect across EEG electrodes.
These combined experimental and modeling results suggest a mechanism by which electrical stimulation can accelerate synaptic homeostasis and thereby influence a putative process of sleep regulation. The ability to accelerate the homeostatic function of sleep may have important practical implications.

Figures

Citation: Reato D, Gasca F, Datta A, Bikson M, Marshall L, et al. (2013) Transcranial Electrical Stimulation Accelerates Human Sleep Homeostasis. PLoS Comput Biol 9(2): e1002898. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002898
Editor: Abigail Morrison, Research Center Jülich, Germany
Received: August 1, 2012; Accepted: December 10, 2012; Published: February 14, 2013 Copyright: © 2013 Reato et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: The studies were supported by grants from the DFG (SFB 654: Plasticity and Sleep and GSC 235/1, Graduate School for Computing in Medicine and Life Sciences) and NIH/NSF/BMBF/CRCNS (USA-German Collaboration in Computational Neuroscience, grant number NIH-R01-MH-092926-01). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Introduction

Human sleep is characterized by distinct sleep stages which can be readily identified in the electroencephalogram (EEG). Of particular interest is the activity in the 0.5–4 Hz frequency band known as slow-wave activity (SWA). The power of SWA increases following extended
waking and decreases in power and spatial coherence throughout the night [1], [2]. SWA activity is thought to reflect a homeostatic mechanism that regulates sleep [3]. These changes in power have been hypothesized to result from potentiation and downscaling of synaptic connections during wakefulness and sleep respectively [4]–[9].

Homeostatic plasticity refers to a physiological feedback mechanism that regulates average firing rates by altering synaptic strength: high firing rates lead to synaptic depression and low firing rates to potentiation [10]. A link between homeostatic plasticity and sleep homeostasis is supported by the parallels between firing rates and SWA: namely, extended waking results in increased cortical firing rates at the beginning of sleep, and firing rate decays again during
sleep [11].

Here we consider slow-wave oscillations (SWO, 0.5–1 Hz) in the human EEG as a marker for sleep homeostasis and its modulation by transcranial electrical stimulation. We found that a relatively short 25 minutes of stimulation in humans during slow-wave sleep at the beginning of the night had a lasting effect on homeostatic decay of SWO in the hours following stimulation.

The effects of transcranial electrical stimulation on brain activity have been the subject of intense investigation in the last decade [12], [13]. A number of studies show specific enhancement in human cognitive performance including memory, language, computational, and executive function [14]–[17]. The mechanisms leading to the observed cognitive effects of weak electrical stimulation in human behavioral studies remain fundamentally unaddressed. The current mechanistic explanation is limited to the notion of neuronal excitability where function is “increased” or “decreased” by virtue of neuronal polarization with anodal or cathodal stimulation respectively. However, the basic physics of current flow calls this simple notion into question as cortical folding leads to varying polarity across cortex making the origins of polarity specific effects unclear [18]. Furthermore, while acute effects of uniform week electric fields are well characterized, including modulation of firing rates [19], it is less clear how these acute effects translate into specific long term effects.

We hypothesized that stimulation during slow-wave sleep alters neuronal firing rates, which would modulate homeostatic synaptic downscaling and thus alter the homeostatic decay of SWO. A multi-scale computational model makes this hypothesis explicit by linking the macroscopic domains of current flow in the entire head with the microscopic cellular effects of polarization. The model shows that network dynamics of SWA can rectify bi-directional

polarization leading to an unidirectional increase of firing rates and synaptic downscaling. A number of predicted effects of stimulation on SWO are subsequently confirmed by the present human EEG sleep data. Specifically, the data confirmed the prediction of diminished SWO decay in the hours after stimulation, and the multi-scale model accurately predicted the effect sizes across multiple scalp electrodes.

The ability to accelerate sleep homeostasis may have important practical implications given that SWA is widely considered to be a marker of the restorative power of sleep.

Results

SWO power and spatial coherence decay with time during sleep

In a study on memory consolidation during sleep [14] Marshall et al. stimulated participants during the first period of slow-wave sleep with slow-oscillating unipolar stimulation (0.26 mA switched on and off at 0.75 Hz). Positive (anodal) electrodes were placed bilaterally over lateral prefrontal cortex and negative (cathodal) electrodes over left and right mastoids. EEG was recorded simultaneously from 11 electrodes (Figures 1.A.1, 1.A.2). To characterize the long term effects of stimulation on slow-wave activity, we computed here for each participant the power- spectrum over the course of the night. Slow-wave activity (0.5 Hz–4 Hz) is modulated in time as participants cycle through non-REM and REM sleep stages (Figure 1.B.1, average over 10 participants). Note that the EEG data were aligned based on sleep stages (see Materials and Methods), and sleep-stage cycle-durations are fairly reproducible across subjects [14],[20]. We estimated decay rates of power and coherence as a linear fit on a logarithmic scale (dB), which corresponds to an exponential decay in time (example traces in Figure S1.A–B)[21]–[23]. In the present data the homeostatic decay of power in the band of slow-wave oscillations (0.5 Hz–1 Hz) amounted to −1.22 0.18 dB/hour (mean sem, p-value = 0.0001, N = 10, Student’s t-
test, Figure 1.B.3, analysis window of 4.5 h marked in black, see Materials and Methods). In addition to changes in power, the computational model, which will be presented in the following sections, predicted that the spatial coherence of SWO should also decay. The coherence- spectrum between electrode pairs was computed and averaged across all pairs (Figure 1.C.1, average over 10 participants). In the band of SWO, coherence decays at a rate of −0.70 0.12 dB/hour (mean sem, p-value , N = 10, Student’s t-test, Figure 1.C.3). The present measure of spatial coherence is normalized by power. Thus, its decay does not simply capture a decrease in power but reflects instead a break-up of large scale coherent oscillations over distant cortical areas consistent with recent recordings in humans[2].

Homeostatic decay of SWO is altered by slow-oscillating transcranial electrical stimulation

Our hypothesis on homeostatic plasticity predicted that the decay of SWO should be altered by the transcranial slow-oscillating stimulation administered to participants for 25 minutes (spectrograms in Figures 1.B.2, 1.C.2). Specifically, we expected a reduced rate of decay in both power and spatial coherence in the hours following stimulation. This prediction was confirmed by the present data: the post-stimulation decay rate for power averaged over all electrodes is reduced to −0.69 0.18 dB/hour (N = 10, paired shuffled statistics, p = 0.016,Figure 1.B.3) and similarly, the rate of spatial coherence is reduced to −0.15 0.12 dB/hour (N = 10, p =
0.009, Figure 1.C.3). Significant differences in decay rate are found also when analyzing individual electrodes in isolation (p-values corrected for false discovery rate are between 0.013 and 0.035 for all electrodes except F7 with p = 0.132) and the same is true for coherence (p- values between 0.013 and 0.031 except T3 with p = 0.063). The wider band of SWA (0.5–4 Hz)

yielded essentially the same results (p 0.05). Changes in sleep structure are hard to assess from the average spectrogram in Figures 1.B-0.C. Previous analysis already dismissed possible changes in terms of time spent in different sleep stages during the 60 minutes after the stimulation or the whole night, nor were there differences in the number of sleep cycles [14].

In summary, as predicted, the decay of SWA, which is widely considered to be a marker of sleep homeostasis, is reduced in the hours following electrical stimulation. In the following section we make quantitative predictions of this phenomenon by detailing our hypothesis in the form of a multi-scale computational model. We include a finite-element model of the current flow in the brain as well as a network model for slow wave oscillations.

Transcranial electrical stimulation in humans polarizes the cortical surface with mixed polarity

To determine the expected effects of stimulation for this specific human experiment we first simulated the current flow in an anatomically accurate model of the head (Figure 2.A.1, seeMaterials and Methods). Electrodes were placed as in the human experiments and currents were monophasic (ON/OFF). As a result of the typical folding of human cortex, different cortical regions experience electric fields of varying magnitudes and, more importantly, of opposing polarities (blue and red in Figure 2.A.2). Thus, neurons in adjacent cortical areas will experience opposing membrane polarizations (Figure 2.A.3). This finding is not unique to the specific electrode montage [18].

Slow-oscillating stimulation increases firing rate during SWO despite mixed polarity

To examine the effect of differing stimulation polarities on SWO we developed a simple network model of UP/DOWN state transitions. Single-compartment excitatory and inhibitory spiking neurons were recursively connected and arranged on a 2D lattice (900 neurons, Figure 2.B.1).
The model reproduces slow-wave oscillations by virtue of an activity-dependent slow recovery variable in a fashion comparable to previous models of SWO [9], [24]–[26] (Figure 2.B.2). The recovery variable acts to decrease neuronal excitability after periods of high activity (UP-state) and recovers after periods of quiescence (DOWN-state). The parameters of the model were chosen to reproduce key features of SWO in humans, such as oscillation frequency and coherence time, and the firing rate of single neurons was adjusted to match animal in vitro data (Figure 2.B.3, see Materials and Methods). Note that network parameters were chosen here to
reproduce the irregular slow-wave pattern typical of human EEG data (i.e. short coherence times, see Materials and Methods). These contrast the very regular oscillations often measured in in- vitro preparations [26], [27] which can be readily reproduced by the present model by increasing the strength of synaptic connections (see Materials and Methods). The effects of weak-field stimulation were implemented as a weak current injection to pyramidal neurons. The specific model of field-to-neuron coupling was validated at multiple frequencies in terms of firing rates, spike timing and entrainment using rat hippocampal slice recordings [19]. The same modeling approach was also used to model acute entrainment of slow waves oscillations in cortical ferret slices [28].

Different areas of the network were subjected to depolarizing or hyperpolarizing fields corresponding to the mixed polarities of the macroscopic field distributions (Figure 2.B.1). We find that when the network is subjected to constant current stimulation, average firing rates during slow-wave oscillations were increased or decreased depending on the predominant stimulation polarity (Figure 3.A.1). However, when stimulation was turned on and off at the same rate as the slow-oscillations (0.75 Hz), firing rate was only increased (Figure 3.A.2). This remarkable rectification of field-effects on firing rate is the result of the entrainment of the slow- wave oscillation to the applied oscillating field as will be explained below.

Entrainment of SWO to oscillating stimulation explains rectification of firing rate effect

The network model suggests that weak oscillating stimulation can entrain SWO even for very low amplitude fields (Figure S2.A) and that entrainment results from a modulation of the duration of the UP and DOWN state (Figures S2.B.1-S2.B.2). Entrainment, as previously reported [14] is confirmed here with the present analysis of EEG data (Figure S2.C.1-C.2, Pz electrode, Rayleigh test, 5 trials per 13 subjects considered, p = 0.017). Entrainment of UP/DOWN-state transitions for weak applied fields have also been reported in ferret
slices [28]and spiking activity was also entrained in in vivo recordings in rat [29]. Neither study reported any long term effects of fields on SWO.

For monophasic stimulation, as in the present study, entrainment occurs regardless of polarity, but does so with opposing phase for opposing polarities (Figure 3.A.3). In the case of depolarizing stimulation (anodal with currents flowing into cortex), the ON period of stimulation aligns with the UP-state, while in the case of hyperpolarizing stimulation (cathodal with currents flowing out of cortex), the ON period aligns with the DOWN-state (Figure 3.A.4). The depolarizing field during the UP-state can increase the firing rate of this active state. However, hyperpolarizing fields during the DOWN-state can not reduce firing rate as the network is already quiescent.

Thus, while DC stimulation may lead to mixed effects on firing rate across space, applying slow- oscillating ON/OFF stimulation during SWO may rectify the effects of fields leading to an unidirectional increase in firing rate.

Electrical stimulation affects homeostatic downscaling in the network model

In vivo animal experiments suggest that synapses undergo downscaling during sleep [5] and that this coincides with a reduction in firing rates [11]. This is consistent with homeostatic synaptic plasticity, which adapts synaptic strength so as to stabilize firing rate to a set level[30]. We implemented here a slow, activity-dependent negative feedback on excitatory synaptic strength. Given the relatively high firing rate of the UP-state, this leads to widespread synaptic downscaling (green curve in Figure 3.B.1), and in turn, to a decrease in the power of slow-wave oscillations in the course of time (Figure 3.B.2). Spatial coherence of slow-wave oscillations also decreased with time (Figure 3.B.3). Both results are consistent in direction and magnitude with the present human EEG data (Figures 1.B.1 and 1.C.1).

We argued above that slow-oscillating stimulation leads to an acute increase of firing rate, even at the small field intensities expected on human cortex of less than 0.5 V/m. In the network model this increased firing rate caused faster synaptic downscaling (Figure 3.B.1, using a field magnitude of 0.31 V/m). With this accelerated downscaling during stimulation, at the end of stimulation, firing rates are reduced as compared to the sham condition. Thus, with a diminished drive for downscaling, in the hours after stimulation the rate of SWO decay was correspondingly reduced – in power as well as spatial coherence (decays in Figures 3.B.2–3.B.3 and results
in Figures 4.A.1–4.A.2).

In the human experiment acceleration during stimulation could not be measured directly because entrainment and stimulation artifact distort the endogenous EEG signal. Instead, we measured the slope of decay after stimulation (Figures 1.B.3 and 1.C.3). These measures matched the model predictions shown in Figures 4.A.1–4.A.2: the difference in the decay for power between the stimulation and sham conditions in the EEG data is dB/hour
and dB/hour in the computational model; for spatial coherence the difference in decay rate is dB/hour and dB/hour respectively.

Accurate spatial prediction of effect size

To further test the link between stimulation and downscaling, we analyzed the effect size for each of the 11 recording sites. For the human experiment the rate of decay in power was determined for each electrode and averaged across subjects for the sham and stimulation conditions (Figure 4.B.1–4.B.2). We ran the model without stimulation using random synaptic weights and selected for each location a set of weights that approximately matched spatially the EEG sham condition in terms of their decay rate (Figure 4.B.3). We then applied stimulation to the model of each “location” using the intensity distribution of fields found in the FEM model in the vicinity of each electrode. We used the field intensity orthogonal to the cortical surface since
cell polarization is approximately proportional to the field intensity in the main axis of pyramidal cells [31]. The average value of the electric field chosen was 0.93 V/m (in this case the stimulation is depolarizing or hyperpolarizing for different locations of the network;
see Materials and Methods). This resulted in a decay rate for each “location” as shown in Figure
4.B.4. The spatial distribution is remarkably similar to the one observed in the human EEG.

Indeed, the effect size of stimulation versus sham across electrodes was significantly correlated with the predicted values (N = 11 electrodes, , p = 0.02,Figure 4.C).

In summary, the model not only explained the systematic reduction in decay rate of SWO power after stimulation despite mixed polarity stimulation, but it also predicted the effect size in each location by considering the specific mix of polarities near each electrode.

Discussion

Slow-wave activity has long been associated with the restorative function of sleep [32] and recovery from wakefulness [5], [21]. EEG slow-wave oscillations reflect periodic transitions between UP and DOWN states broadly distributed over the cortex [33] and are thought to be involved in plastic mechanisms [34]. The power of SWA has been linked to learning; for instance, practice on a visuomotor task preceding sleep increases SWA and its strength correlates with task performance following sleep [6], [8]. SWA is also hypothesized to play a crucial role in memory consolidation by virtue of its ability to group the activity of various brain
rhythms [35] (e.g. hippocampal ripples; [36], [37] and thalamo-cortical spindles [38].)

A predominant feature of SWA is its decay in the course of the night. Many investigators attribute this decay to homeostatic downscaling of synaptic strength [5], [6], [9]. In their view, synaptic connections that became stronger during wakefulness are reduced in magnitude during sleep. Consistent with homeostatic synaptic plasticity, this decrease coincides with a reduction in firing rates [11]. Homeostatic plasticity represents a negative feedback that adapts synaptic strength resulting in a steady level of neuronal activity [10]. Synaptic downscaling during sleep has been postulated to serve a number of important functions, such as maintaining computational efficiency of the brain by increasing the signal-to-noise ratio of synaptically decoded
information [35]; allowing maximum storage efficiency while preventing hyperactivity[39]; and maintaining synaptic normalization [40]. The physiological substrate for the scaling of synaptic connections could be explained by considering that the levels of neuromodulators strongly differ from waking to NREM sleep, for example the concentrations of acetylcholine[41], [42] and norepinephrine [43] are significantly altered. Alternatively, spike-timing dependent plasticity (STDP) during neuronal bursts in slow-wave sleep may favor synaptic depression [44].
Downscaling has also been proposed to results from bursts of activity leading to long-term- depression during NREM sleep [45]. Recent studies also point to a possible role of glial cells in determining synaptic scaling. [46].

We previously showed that slow-oscillating transcranial electrical stimulation can modify endogenous slow oscillatory activity on a short term basis [14]. The question for the present work was whether cortical homeostatic mechanisms are influenced by slowly oscillating transcranial stimulation.

Anatomically accurate models of current-flow in transcranial stimulation estimate that the electric fields induced at the cortical level for a typical 2 mA stimulation are at most 1 V/m [18]. This may polarize a cell by no more than a fraction of a millivolt [31], [47]. While these intensities seem very small, there are a number of in vitro and in vivo experiments explaining the basic mechanisms by which such low-amplitude electric fields may nevertheless acutely alter neuronal activity, both at the single cell [48] and at the network level [19], [49]–[51]. In

particular, it has already been shown, both experimentally and using computational models[19], [28], that the effects resulting from the modest membrane polarization of isolated neurons are significantly amplified on the network level due to the dynamic nature of network activity. This can result in altered firing rates and altered oscillatory rhythms. For instance, the
modulation of gamma activity with theta oscillations in the hippocampus is conceivably entirely due to the small fields generated endogenously in the theta band [19]. Similarly, slow-wave activity can be entrained by very weak endogenous fields in vitro [28] or weak applied currentsin vivo [29]. Most importantly, however, there are a multitude of studies in human showing long term plastic effects (e.g. [13], [52]–[56], just to name a few). These are often simply described as lasting changes in neuronal excitability [57]. However, the mechanisms by which weak stimulation could modulate/induce plasticity are less well understood. In humans, both
enhancing and suppressing effects have been found with either polarity of stimulation. Some studies argue that depolarizing currents enhance glutamatergic or NMDA dependent Hebbian- type plasticity [58], [59], while other studies have invoked homeostatic plasticity [60]. Lasting effects on synaptic efficacy have only recently been found in vitro [61], [62]. These studies demonstrate that very specific conditions on network activity are required in addition to weak- field stimulation in order to observe lasting changes in synaptic efficacy [63].

In the present study we have aimed to provide a detailed explanation of how weak fields, which are capable of modulating network firing rates [19], may alter ongoing homeostatic plasticity, and how this translates into observable macroscopic effects on EEG slow-wave oscillations.
Crucial for our predictions was a network model of slow-wave oscillations that is based on UP/DOWN state transitions. We showed that SWO entrain to weak-field slow-oscillatory stimulation consistent with experiments in vitro [28] and in vivo [29]. We also confirmed entrainment here again on the human EEG data (Figure S2.C.1). The model exhibited entrainment for depolarizing, hyperpolarizing and mixed polarity stimulation (Figures 3.A.3– 3.A.4). Importantly, we demonstrate how this entrainment rectifies the effects of fields of mixed polarity to result only in increased firing rates (Figure 3.A.2). When combined with homeostatic plasticity, the model reproduced slow-wave decay in power similarly to previous more complex computational models [9] (Figure 3.B.2). Interestingly, the present model also reproduced the recently observed breakup of global coherent oscillations [2] reflected here in declining spatial slow-wave coherence (Figure 3.B.3) – a finding that we confirmed also in the human EEG data (Figure 1.C.1). We used a simple negative feedback on firing activity to implement homeostatic plasticity. Specifically, the model predicted that an acute increase in the firing rate results in a faster homeostatic downscaling of synapses. Thus, we predicted a reduced decay of slow-wave decay (in power and coherence) in the hours after stimulation (Figure 3.B.2–B.3). Human SWO subsequent to stimulation were indeed modulated as predicted (Figure 1.B.3–C.3). The results are further confirmed by the precise agreement of model predictions with the varying effect size observed across electrodes (Figure 4.B–4.C).

The choice of a target firing rate was made to reproduce the experimentally observed decrease in firing rate during slow-wave sleep as reported in in-vivo experiments [11]. Previous models of SWO implemented a reduction of synaptic strength explicitly [9] or implicitly using STDP [64]. More complex models of plasticity, such as the BCM model [65] are expected to lead to similar predictions.

An alternative interpretation of the observed reduction in decay rate after stimulation may be an alteration of sleep stages, e.g. the first slow waves stage was disrupted. However, it is not clear how this hypothesis would lead to different effects at different electrode locations. It is also possible that fields have a direct effect on synaptic strength, but current literature suggests that very specific conditions need to be satisfied for plastic effects to be observed. While we made no direct observation of firing rates nor synaptic strengths, the agreement between the present multi- scale model and the human EEG data does support the hypothesis that field-induced cell polarization results in an increase of firing rate and that this accelerates synaptic downscaling during oscillatory transcranial stimulation.

Materials and Methods

Human EEG data after stimulation in sleep

EEG data was recorded on human subjects from the beginning of the night sleep until wake the next morning in the study described by [14]. Briefly, transcranial stimulation with slow- oscillating currents (ON/OFF at 0.75 Hz with trapezoid waveform) was performed after subjects had attained stable stage 2 or deeper non-rapid eye movement sleep (according to [66]).
Stimulation was repeated altogether 5 times for 5 minutes followed by 1 minute intervals without stimulation (total of 25 minutes stimulation plus four one-minute intervals). Anodal stimulating electrodes were placed bilaterally at F3 and F4 and cathodal electrodes on mastoids M1 and M2 (10/20 system, Figure 1.A.1). Current intensity on each hemisphere oscillated between 0.26 mA (on) and 0.0 mA (off) and was below perception. To assure that stimulation intensities were below perception thresholds we stimulated subjects for 10 seconds (active and sham) when subjects where in bed but lights were still on. Immediately after, subjects were asked whether they had felt anything on their head. The subjects responses did not differ between the active stimulation or sham stimulation, indicating that the stimulation was indeed below perception.
Note that the stimulation used in the study are significantly lower than the maximum used during transcranial stimulation (2 mA, [13], [55]) and so well below the current amplitudes considered safe for human studies [67], [68]. To test further for possible side effects, heart rate was monitored during sleep, i.e. during stimulation and thereafter. No obvious changes in heart rate were observed during the stimulation. The experimental protocol was approved by the ethics committee of the University of Lübeck.

For the present analysis EEG data with complete sleep scores included 10 subjects for the sham conditions and 13 subjects with active stimulation. Paired tests were thus limited to 10 subjects. Acute entrainment of EEG to the oscillatory stimulation on this data has been previously reported [14]. However, this previous analysis did not consider the phase of entrainment nor slow-wave spatial coherence, and more importantly, it did not analyze long term decay of SWO in the hours following stimulation.

Power and spatial coherence changes in the human EEG data.

Slow-wave power varies significantly with different sleep stages. In order to compare slow-wave power from different recording sessions it is therefore important to align sleep stages. The EEG data were aligned to the first uninterrupted 1 minute period in sleep stage 2. With this, the SWO

power (0.5–1 Hz) in the minute preceding the stimulation period did not differ between sham and stimulation conditions (N = 10 and N = 13 for sham and stimulation conditions
respectively, , two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test). SWO power was measured for each electrode in periods of 40 seconds by averaging power in the corresponding frequency bins after Fourier transform. Spatial coherence was determined from the normalized cross-correlation by Fourier transforming, squaring, and averaging across SWO frequency bins. Values are computed for each electrode by averaging coherence of all pairs involving the electrode. These power and coherence measures are obtained for all 40 seconds intervals. Their decay rate during the night was measured as the slope of these curves using a linear robust fit. The fit considered a
4.5 hour period starting at the end of the stimulation until 30 min before the end of the shortest signal (to avoid contamination from awakening). Non-parametric statistics were obtained by randomizing the labels (sham vs stimulation) and computing mean decay rates with random labels. p-values were computed using these shuffle statistic. Correction for multiple comparisons across electrodes controlled the false-discovery rate (FDR).

Computational model

Single-cell model.

We restrict our model to a single compartment neuron. This simplification omits the effects of fields on the dendritic arbors [47] yet is sufficient to describe effects on spiking
activity [19],[48]. We used Izhikevich’s model [69], [70] with a set of parameters that reproduces the physiological spiking behaviors of cortical neurons. The equations describing the neuronal dynamics and the details on the network model can be found in [69] and in our previous study[19].

Network model.

The network model consists of excitatory neurons and inhibitory neurons arranged at random on a 2D lattice. When a spike is elicited by neuron the synaptic input current to neuron is given by the synaptic currents of AMPA and NMDA channels (for excitatory pre-synaptic neurons) and , channels (for inhibitory pre-synaptic neurons). The synaptic conductances are described by a first-order linear
kinetics (where x = AMPA, NMDA, , ) with
, , , . When a pre-synaptic neuron fires an action potential, the synaptic conductance of the post-synaptic neuron increases in average
by or for excitatory or inhibitory connections respectively. The synaptic

currents are then [70]: (1)

where represents a modulatory homeostatic factor (see below), the conductances
are , , and , , are the reversal potentials for excitatory and inhibitory synapses respectively.
Neuron receive excitatory input from a 5×5 neighborhood and inhibitory input from a 3×3 neighborhood with periodic boundary conditions. In any simulation run, parameters of the Izhikevich model as well as synaptic strength and were chosen at random following a normal distribution with standard deviation equal to 5 of the average value.

Model for the generation of slow-wave oscillations.

At the network level, slow waves oscillations are thought to reflect a periodic transition between an active “UP” state and a quiescent “DOWN” state. To simulate elevated firing activity of the UP state we increased the level of intrinsic excitability of neurons by increasing the variable in Izhikevich’s voltage equation [69]. If firing rate in such an active UP state is very high then a variety of factors may contribute to a gradual decay of neuronal excitability. Thus, we made the dynamics of this variable activity-dependent to reflect a negative feedback. Specifically, in our model the instantaneous firing rate of a neuron modulates the excitability of that same neuron as
follows: (2)
where is the value of the parameter in steady state conditions ( and for excitatory and inhibitory neurons respectively); reflects the neuron’s firing rate (low-pass filtered spike train with time constant 0.9 s) and is a proportionality constant (set in the simulations to 6). Physiologically, such a negative feedback on excitability with this time scale has been variably ascribed to neuromodulators (acetylcholine, norepinephrine), ionic concentrations (potassium and calcium), ionic channels ( -dependent potassium channels, persistent sodium channels) or metabolic support.
UP/DOWN states can result from activity-dependent slow recovery dynamics in a balanced excitatory/inhibitory network.

The negative feedback on excitability down-regulates excitability so that the active UP state is eventually exhausted and comes to an end. The network thus enters a quiescent state with little, if any activity. This DOWN state persists until recovers, at which point any small perturbation
can jump-start the UP-state, propagating like an avalanche through the network[71]. This network model reproduced the regular UP and DOWN states transitions typical of slow-wave oscillations (Figures 2.B.2). In the network model we take the post-synaptic currents averaged across all neurons as a measure of local-field potentials (LFP) – since physiological LFPs are thought to reflect synaptic activity. With the present parameter settings the frequency and bandwidth of the network LFP was in the range of 0.5–1 Hz (Figure 5.A.1). This is the dominant band of slow-wave activity (0.5–4 Hz) in the human EEG (Figures 5.A.2) and is referred to as slow-wave oscillation [38]. For Figures 3 and 4 the LFP was estimated in four subregions of the network (in arrays of 11×11 neurons) and each LFP treated analogously to the multiple
electrodes in the EEG. From these LFPs power and spatial coherence were calculated in the same way than the EEG data.

Power and coherence of slow-wave oscillations depend on synaptic strength.

In the model the firing rate during the UP states and the power of slow-waves depend strongly on the strength of excitatory connections, (Figures 5.B.1–5.B.2). The configuration of parameters chosen here simulated UP states with an average firing rate of 5 Hz, compatible with slice experiments (2–10 Hz, [27]). Stronger excitatory connections would produce higher firing rate and stronger power of slow-waves, but the parameters where chosen to replicate the irregular EEG rhythms, as seen in Figure 5.A.2. In particular, while the frequency of the oscillations does not depend strongly on the range of excitatory connections (in the 0.5–1 Hz range, Figure 5.B.3), a critical characteristic of slow-wave oscillations in human EEG data is the short coherence time ( 3 cycles, measured from the EEG data, Figure 5.C.1). The strength of excitatory connections ( ) was chosen to reproduce the short coherence time of EEG data (Figure 5.B.4–5.C.2). Increasing the strength of excitatory connections allows to reproduce the strongly regular pattern typical of slow-wave activity induced in brain slices (Figure 5.D).

Model of effect of electric field.

Most somata of inhibitory neurons remain largely unaffected by extracellular fields due to their symmetric location between dentritic arbors [31]. In contrast, somata of asymmetric pyramidal cells are incrementally polarized by uniform extracellular fields proportionally to the applied field magnitude [47], [48]: (3)
where is the sensitivity of the membrane to the field and depends on cell geometry and field orientation. We simulated here the effects of the field as a current injection to each excitatory neuron. This approach have been already successful in describing the effects of weak fields on gamma activity in rat hippocampal slices [19] and on slow waves in ferret cortical slices [28]. A capacitive term in Izhikevich’s model converts this current input into a low-pass filtered membrane voltage response. Specifically, a current results in a steady-state incremental polarization above the resting membrane potential. With the present parameters the relationship between injected current and induced polarization was measured
as where is in mV. We assume that a 1 V/m electric field can polarize the soma by 0.2 mV ( , typical value for rat hippocampal pyramidal cells).
With this we can estimate the relationship between electric field and applied current
as . All figures use this conversion term when displaying values of electric field.
The total input current to the -th neuron is then given by:

Model for homeostatic plasticity.

(4)

There are different known types of homeostatic plasticity, involving different possible mechanisms [10]. The plasticity considered here affects the excitatory synaptic connections
based on the firing rate of the post-synaptic neuron [72], (5) where is a factor that modulates excitatory synapses only, is the time constant of this long- term process (minutes), is the instantaneous firing rate of the post-synaptic neurons
computed as the inverse of the inter-spike interval (ISI) and is the target firing rate. This homeostatic rule states that inputs to a post-synaptic neuron that is spiking faster than the target firing rate become weaker, while inputs to neurons not firing enough become stronger. The values of the constant were chosen as and . These values were chosen to reproduce changes of SWO power comparable with those measured during the night in the human EEG experiments.
Finite Element Model of transcranial electrical stimulation

The FEM computations follow a previous study [18]. Briefly, an anatomical MRI with 1 mm resolutions for an adult male was segmented and different tissues (gray matter, white matter, cerebrospinal fluid, skull, scalp, eye region, muscle, air, and blood vessels) were assigned conductivity values from the literature. Virtual electrodes were placed as in the human experiment and a finite-element mesh was generated. To compute electric field distribution in the brain the Laplace equations with Neumann boundaries were solved in COMSOL Multiphysics

4.2 (Burlington, MA) with electrodes drawing 0.26 mA. The radial component of the resultant electric field was computed as the dot product of field vectors with a unit vector that is normal to the cortical surface. These radial components were collected in a volume of a 35 mm diameter around each EEG electrode (Figure 6.A shows radial fields at mesh points of the FEM within such a volume). These values were then sorted (Figure 6.B) and the resulting field profile was applied along one direction of the 2D network lattice (Figure 6.C). The top and bottom 3.12 percentile were exclude and amplitudes scaled to an average of 0.93 V/m.

The fields computed by the FEM are significantly smaller than what we used in the network simulations. However, there are a number of parameters that may magnify the specific effect size. The polarization of the cell membrane in response to applied fields used here was based on in-vitro experiments in rat [48]. Human cortical cells are larger, which may result in larger membrane polarizations [31]. More importantly, we observed for the present model that the effect of polarization on network firing rate is an increasing function of the number of incoming synaptic connections (Figure 7). A realistic network architecture with hundreds if not thousands synaptic inputs is thus expected to lead to a larger effect size.

Supporting Information

Figure S1.
Example traces of the analysis performed on the EEG data. The decay of slow-wave oscillations was estimated by fitting (in a log-scale) power and spatial coherence after the stimulation
(see Materials and Methods). A–B: Decay of the power of slow-wave oscillations during the night (Fz electrode, green: sham condition, red: stimulation condition) for two representative subjects.
doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002898.s001 (TIFF)

Figure S2.
Entrainment of slow oscillatory activity by applying weak electrical stimulation. A: Coherence (mean vector strength, maximum = 1) between model LFP and applied slow-oscillating field as a function of field intensity and fractions of neuron polarized in either direction. B.1: Relative change of the duration of the DOWN state in the case of cathodal (blue) or anodal (red) stimulation (0.31 V/m). B.2: Relative change of the duration of the UP state in the case of cathodal (blue) or anodal (red) stimulation (0.31 V/m). C.1: Entrainment of slow-wave

oscillations immediately after the stimulation in the human EEG data (shown here for Pz electrode). The dark gray bar indicate the 10 s interval (delimited by the dashed magenta line) where the distribution of phases of the oscillations across trials and subjects is significantly different from being uniform. The same analysis performed on the following 10 s does not produce results statistically different from a uniform distribution (no preferential phase). C.2: Distribution of phases relative to figure C.1 considering all the trials and all the subjects. The 5 stimulation periods for all the subjects were aligned and the exponential decay from the AC- coupled amplifier was removed. The residual was fit to as sinusoid in frequency, phase and amplitude. Entrainment phase was only analyzed for the Pz electrode as this was the electrode with the smallest stimulation artifact. Note that the EEG recording equipment was AC-coupled resulting in a constant phase delay. Thus absolute value of phase is not relevant here.
Nevertheless, a consistent phase across subjects despite anatomical differences is indicative of the predicted entrainment to a preferred phase.
doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002898.s002 (TIFF)

Acknowledgments

We greatly acknowledge the work of Halla Helgadóttir in collecting data. We also want to thank Asif Rahman and Belen Lafon (The City College of New York) for the useful comments on the paper. The first author would like to give special thanks to Fanny Cazettes (Albert Einstein College of Medicine) for her valuable comments and all her constant support during the preparation of the manuscript.

Author Contributions

Conceived and designed the experiments: DR LM LCP. Performed the experiments: DR LM LCP. Analyzed the data: DR FG AD LCP. Wrote the paper: DR MB LM LCP.

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i\mping lTp Brain Function:
Trans-cranial Stimulation Sho\vs Promise in Speeding up Learning:
Scientific i\merican
Posted on August20, 2012 by John
Another group ofresearchers hot on the trail how tDCS might be used to enhance brain function is the (non-profit) Mind Research Network of Albuquerque, NM. A lot of their work is funded by J:illi, but what J’ve seen around their tDCS research pertains to increasing soldier’s abiiity to detect
danger, and is funded by DOA (20 IO Research Report pdf) Unfortunately I was not able to find a full version of thepapernot behind a pay wali. The abstract is here and from a Scientific America
article…
Subjects definite/y register the stimu/ation, but lis not unp/easant. „ltfeels like a mild tiekling or slight burning,”says undergraduate student Lauren Bullard, who was one of thesubjects inanother
study on mes and learning reported at the meeting, along with her mentors Jung and Michael
Weisend and colleagues of the Mind Research Network in Albuquerque . „Aftenvard I feel more alert,” she says.

Bullard and her co-authors sought to determine if they couId measure any tangible changes in the brain after mes, which couId explain how the treatment accelerates learning. Theresearchers
lookedfor bothfunctionał changes in the brain (altered brain-wave activity) andphysicał changes (by examining MRI brain seans) after mes.

They used magnetoencephalography {M. EG) torecord magneticfields (brain waves) produced by sensory stimulation (sound, touch and light,for example), while test subjects received mes. The researchers reported that mesgave a six-times baseline boost to the amplitude of a brain wave
generated inresponse to stimulating a sensory nerve in thearm. The boost was not seen when mock mes was used, whichproduced a simi/ar sensation on thesca/p, butwas ineffective in exciting brain tissue. The effect alsopersisted long afier mes was stopped. Thesensory-evoked brain wave remained 2.5 limes greater than norma/ 50 minutes afier mes. These resultssuggest thai mes
increases cerebral cortex excitabiltty, thereby heightening arousal, increasing responses tosensory input,and accelerating information processing in cortical circuits.

Remarkabl31, MRI brain seans revealed e/ear str11et11ral ehanges in the brain assoon asf zve days ajler TDCS. Neurons in the cerebral cortex connect with oneanother toform circuits via massive
bund/es of nervefibers (axons) buried deep below the brain 's surface in „white matter tracts.” The fiber bund/es werefound to bemorerobustand more highly organized after mes.No changes were
it d timulate l le de

[A novel transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation leads to brainstem and cerebral activations measured by functional MRI].
Dietrich S1, Smith J,Scherzinger C,Hofmann-P.r.ei ss K,freitag T,Eis.enKoJb. A,Ringler R.

Author information Abstract
BACKGROUND:
Left cervicalvagus nerve stimulation (VNS) using the implanted NeuroCybernetic Prosthesis (NCP) can reduce epileptic seizures and has recently been shown to give promising results for treating therapy resistant depression.To address a disadvantage of this state-of-the-art VNS device,the use of an alternative transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation technique,designed for muscular stimula:ion,was studied.Functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been used to test non-invasively access nerve structures associatedwith the vagus nerve system.The results and their impact are unsalisfying due to missing brainstem activations.These activations,however,are mandatory for reasoning,higher subcorticaland corticalactivations of vagus nerve structures.The objective of this study was to test a new parameter setting and a noveldevice for performing specific (well-controlled) transcutaneous VNS
( at the inner side of the tragus.This paper shows the feasibility of these and their potentia!for brainstem and cerebral activations as measured by blood oxygenation leveldependent functionalMRI (BOLD!MRI).
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
In total,four healthy male adults were scanned inside a 1.5-Tesla MR scanner while undergoing at the left tragus.We ensured that our newly developed stimulator was adapted to be an MR-safe stimulation device.In the experiment,corticaland brainstem representations during were compared to a baseline.
RESULTS:
A positive BOLD response was detected during stimulation in brain areas associated with higher order relay nuclei of vagalalferent pathways,respectively the left locus the thalamus (left »right), the left prefrontalcortex,the right and the left p,Q.. g.Y.JlJj, the left posterior cingulated g.Y.(lJi and the
left insula. Deactivatio1s were found in the right nucleus CCM!!!RęO§ and the right cerebellar hemisphere.
CONCLUS/ ON:
The method and device are feasible and appropriate for accessing cerebralvagus nerve structures, respectively.As functionalpatterns share features with fMRIBOLD,the effects previously studied with the NCP are discussed and new possibilities of are bgtb iml

Research Shows M11sic Improves Brain Function

For most people music is an enjoyable, although momentary, form of entertainment. But for those who seriously practiced a musical instrument when they were young, perhaps when they played in a school orchestra or even a rock band, the musical experience canbe something more. Recent research shows that a strong correlation exists between musicaltraining for children and certain other mental abilities.

Cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES): A safe and effective low cost means of anxiety control in
a dental practice

… wd•CktolwIl,1″8
19’1
Au;ej*9ll; April 14,. 19911

Reducmg poaent 1ruuety always bas be-en a concem in the practicc ol dentutry Tt>day, denusis have a vanery of modah1iesava1ilble 10 reduce p111lentSI anx>ety 'l’ypical ex•mples include medic:etion . electron1c anesthesio. acupunc · ture, hypnosts. wr…brasion dental bandp1ece5 and nttrous oxtde Each has ns advamages and clisad: vantages Concerning d1sadvon· tilgcs. somc a_re too n.sivtt.
some are 100 rime·consum1ng and
some have a loog learning curvt Others lim11ed by pallent.s’ medical conditions or have li!IJlU· 1ng srde effeet:s aftcr treatment
A popular dental aru:1ol yt>c 1s 01rrous OXlde a gas of low anc-s theuc po1ency thai is mcapoblo ol 1nduClng deep lovels ol one51.heS>a if an adequatt oxygen eonecntra

I 315.0, 1dju•1cd lor age. smok· Ing.and number ol amalgams pro: pared per „'”•kl b”t no!a.moog those usins nitrous ox.ide in of
flces w1th scavengmg „’JUipmeol.’ lt b.a1 becn knowa for somc time 1hat tłe-ctrical stunulation
etlccis physiologlcnl changos. ln 1he 1800• dcntmo reported e:xcel lcn1 resuhs uslng crude el„ctrical dovices lor pam control By !he
tur’n of th1s cenrury. electricaJ dcv1cea weorc in w>dcsprcad we 10 monage patn •nd to cu.ro overy· tbmg lrom cencer to lropotem:y The unrelined early el„ctrical 1ecbnologie1 and linaocial
•trenglh ol 1h• young pharmac”u ticol indusiry caused this form ol therapy IO fali IDIO cbsrtput• in th• mcdical and dental prole„ SIOll5 This lefl cb„mutry the

non is me1ntamcd Nitrous oxade ·masier science’ and as sucb ful:

tnducc-s o state of MvłOral d.a tnhtbtlion analgHta and eupbo na PhyS1tt.aDS and dentists haw long collSldercd n1trous Olllde to be a safe płuirmacologicol 1gcn1 Nevenheless there u some ev!· dence 1ha1 us exres.51ve or pro longcd usc can dc the booe marrow and DCTVOUS by uuerfenng w11b th” actioo of v1i.·
min 8„ ł
Ther have bttft ttpons of Lm· munologieał and rtprodunive clJs: turbaJl«S in beslth catt ptOfes SJOnals who on chronic&lly es· posed 10 oitrous aodc • An
vated nsk of spontaneow abonion bas bttn scen 1mong „-’omen wbo wo11u!d wn.b n1rrou.J oxide tor
!htte or mor” hours per wcdt in offices cot u.siog scavtnging eqaipmenl (ttlative nsk – 2 6,
95 :rcent c:onftde:nc.e 1.ntttvaJ

ły r-ctponsibłe lor trHttn1 all o(
monlund s dis
Naw thai we are applOKbing the r uro of anotheT ce.nrury armed wi1.b a new foundation of ocientific dY fonns of poun
Alpba·Sllm ( Elcctromedical Prochlcu lo1cna1.looal In Min· cral W„Us TXI craiual <r· apy sumulatioo 1C11SI tcclmology appealS IO oflor an easy IO …., sak a.od ·dltttive treatment to reduce shuational •oiiety Sun!ey et al showcd thai CBS

50 GEl’.fRAI. OE’ITISTRYIJANUARY-FEBRUARY 1999

CURRJCNT TlltRAPBUTIC
IU:SEAllCll
VOL. BI, NO. 2, rEDRUARY ltU

THE USE OF CRANIAL El.ECTROTHERAPY STlMULATION TO BLOCK FEAR PERCEPTION IN PHOBIC PATIENTS

RAY D.SMITH 1 ANO FRANK N.SlllROMOT01

’Lift Balancc lntrrnallonal , Droprr,UtaJi and 1Priuotc Procti« C01Uull4nt, lluntlngtnn n<och, Callfarnio

ADSTRACT

Cranlal dcclrollmopf 1limulalion (CES> lnvolvu imali pul•ca ot electrlcal currtnl (1.5 mA or le1J) acro11 lht head.li11a known lreal mtnl for d<pruslon, anxlely, ond Insomnia. Chance cllnlcal obaena• llont 1uiguled lhal CES m l ght be dfeclive In redutl nc rur percep lion in phoblc polle nie. Th is aludy wu dulgned Io lnvullgllle lhi1 possible dCect. Thlrtr·onc pc reo na rupondcd Io public media an nouncemenls requ ullng 1ub)cds for o phobio lrcolmcnl project. Thtf were osktd to lm oglnc lhem1elvu in their worel phoblc 1ltuatlon, lhtn role lhcir fcor on u ftcolc from no fcor Io ulrtmt rur. Tht1Wtrt lhtn glvcn 30 mlnutu uf Ct;s, ortcr whlch the1 wtre ukcd to trl1hlen lhcmselvu oroln ond Io rolt lht tor ILll Jore. The polltni. Wtrt 1uccusrul In ccnerotlnr a fur ruponat. whlch, In lurn, appeored to be miligalcd br CES.

INTROIJUCTION

Among the approachcs for tho trcu lment of fenr In phoblc pollenta, voried success has been clnimctl for biofoedbnck,u desensltlialion, ·4 •venion rclief,6 and combinations of behnvlor nnd/or cognitive thcrapies,1indud ing rolnxntion thornpy.1All of lheae are time consuming and require great 11ltention to detoil by the paLlont nnd therapiat alike.
The treatment of phobic palienls can be a long and tuing process for the physician or other therapist. Among phonnnceutical appronchoe, nn tldepressant druga are aaid to be of porticulor benefit,1os is ot least one card lovascular medicalion .1However, even lhe newer lricyclic antideprea aanta are not wilhoul thelr risk to Lhe palient, requiring Urn phyaician to be con.acientious in the regulolio n of dosoge ond alert to the numerous poSJlible negalive side eITects.10 They moy also tnke dnys or wecks to begin to be e!Toctivo.
Recently, the outhors aerond ipilously observed that cranial electro-

Add”’•tomopondtnot Io:l\&y U.Smllh, Ph.D„ Wt 0&1&1\ct loi.malltn&l, P.0.Io& 112, Doopor,UW.
a.020.
lltC•lwd fo•p•llcotlon on Stpltmkr ·lffl.PrinLed I• lho U.S.A.
Repzod\&tllon In wholt or part ił nc\ ptnnlU.td.

IDID[iNEWS
17 May 2013
Brain stimu1lation promises 'long-lasting’ maths boost

The brain stimulation technique could help children who struggle with arithmetic,say rsearchers

Applying high-frequency electrical noise to the brain can boost maths skills up to six months later, say Oxford University researchers.

A small study in Current Biolosy suggests the brain stimulation technique makes neurons functionmare efficiently.lt could help those suffering with neurodegenerative illness, stroke or
learning difficulties.An expert said the technique could have „real,appl ed impact.” Transcranial random noise stimulation (TRNS)involves applying random electrical noise to targeted areas of the brain by placing electrodes on the surface ofthe scalp.lt is a relatively new method of brain
stimulation which is painless and non-invasive.

Our neuro-imaging rnsults suggested that TRNS increases the efficiency with which stimulated brain areas use their supplis of oxygen and nutrients.”
Dr Roi Cohen KadoshUniver.sitv nf Oxford

SCIENTIFIC

(;)[!) „”””9

\’tN!llll>r C&plla!

AMERICAN”
tlt•l lklt<•1·11l .Mnlh by Ois111pli11g Yr.111·81’1\ill

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

N EWS SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENT

Stimulating brainwithelectricity aids learning speed

Can electrical jolts to the brain pr oduce Eureka moments?

PsqchologqTodaq
A

rnrn NEWS
Brain stimulation promises 'long-lasting
maths boost

NewScientl st

BrainSbmulation Makes lhe 'lmpossibłe Problem’ Sol\/abłe
'”’ „”O ………….. W’l’O(I) –

Electrical brain stimulation improves Mirth and laughter elicited
during brain stimulali on

math skills

Boostfng Klds’ Brain Power

rnrnt!I N EWS
17 2013
Brain stimulation promises 'longasting’ maths boost

APPlvino high-freauency ełectrical nois.e to the bruin c.lł”’I boost nllths słóll;upto six
mOf’lthz l:1ber. :=.”’Oxford Univer:5ify rc:se;:,rcher:s.
A !”ml’lll :nudy in Cułft’ntBicloey =IJIJ ! li t-: !:•l’lttl :hr „1;1:-1 11:11 1 :ł <11:1 :m 1 1:-tk l’ •.r : • lur >:’.h1111u 1:n t-lho: ulry li ::1111111 h !p 1;1:1 s1:U 111′:.i wolh 11t’:!ł 1f :t: 1HWll.’ł’: 1lr 11’\”’S, lllh!kll’: „’
lc.Jmn;. :liificulti s. An cxp rt $;ud tl”t:tcchnq.C ooid l’m·„c 'rrol, ;ipplicd r.1onct .•Ttnn$ ;nnk1I
I Joll .(:::-:11 „;,, si r:•11t>1’1C:r 1 ( I l N :.1111vd’lt-1„11:1ly1111J 1 ł:1111 1:lo.::>1l 1-t l”l 1:1h11!,ill’: I 1:11 1tl<. :11 tri- brmn b,’- plncing :1- ctro:lc$ on th:urf·=- cf th-:- :;c1):·.lti$ n.. u:i\#l”l

Our neuro- n aging rMulł9 guggested 1hat TRNSincreese9 tl eefficiency with
whlchsit n1ulated breineree9 U9e thelr 9UppllP.9 of oxygen and riub1enl:9.”

CRANlAL ELECI’ROTHEIW’Y ST!MULATION (CES)
Cnmial lu111Hrop_1 11i11111/11n·1m (Cf:.H lS- 1hc us<· of lqw irm.’l\Sit)’ microC’Urrcnt {undCT one n’lllli.1mperc) to !’rirnulatc ,·arioll:i pan o( the: brain in :ul cf(un w i\chi1;\’C- ncunx,hemica1 change$ -ti an ahcrn:;irivc lO tlrug thcr:tpy. lt is widclv uSC<ł a.;. a trc;1tmen for in.soirmb. ;ilso be;en prvposcd :.łS :lń flltt:rn:uh•e i111cn·cntion (or childrco with :1uti””’ ·111d ADJ ID.
Cunial ełcc1rothc:rnp · stimul:uion is:tłsu known hr :scwr.1101hc-r terms, includ inł! lramrm11inlłledroJ/JtraPJ, 1lfif„YXWrrt11/ tkrtnml lbt.rtt/!}; tl«flY>tNtdiml/rrtt/1flt11ł; and rlrflWIJl«f’.Th1s IJ. llncm isnon-uwa$.i\•C, a1lll i1·wołvcs plitcl ngd<. 1tock-s on or m:-:it 1hccarwhik 11 h-:tnd .hdd dcviec pwic·:tlly t..hc .stimuJ:uion i providc:.'(I bih1 for :a l)’-’Ó<Kl of 1wn m thrt:c u·c:ck and is1:hcn [l’l”o\1i1lcd nn :a lest< frequc.m

UNOERSTANDING CONTROVER SIAL THERAPIES FOR CHILDR EN W TH

bai;i<.. Childri!n :lrc ablc 10 rt.”.:\cl, watch cck’.’i i1on, or lis1eo t(l n\Uic durin 1hc rhr:mpy.l ffct:1:;: ;arc: gencr:illy immc.-diatc, bur „re :il<-o cumul:ati\’C, ··it il> impt>r m11110 lll:linrnin the tOCOinmc:ndcJ protocol ro achi\ c tht fołl bentfosof the
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thcn’ to u’tlm<..”<łfardy l°cd rclaxccl a.nd tnul’t: m cntałt)·:tkrt. Thcy often repott a tin!lling or pufaing scn.sauon in tł1c carlobc wh idt.is llt•l pain(ut Sidccffects :ue fcw, 2nd m:t induclc mild h(._-:ttl:’lchc!>, lih1ht:adctłn.’S tir skin irrit:irion from rh clccttt.xks. Rrcl)’·mon: :i.erivus idcf.:ifcn hiwc łx:cn rx:1>0rcc..'”d, i11ch„11Jing sJcc.p Wsturłxl1lccs.cxccssivc: „.-xdtemcnt. or :io increase in {ltl.Xicty.
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SCIO/Eductor Device rating is the highest = Platinurn

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EDUCTOR AN ADVANCE IN SCIO TECHNOLOGY
lf you need moreinformation on the SCIO and purchase details please get in touchwith us
Maitreya Kft.

The SCIO device can use the Trivector and Cybernetic loop to rectify aberrant and disharmonious energy patterns in the body. This has profound effects on all
body functions but affects the corpus callosum most intensely.
This means that the ability of the conscious verbalmind to relate to the subconscious is increased with the rectification process.The patient will probably not feel the effect. There will always be apositive effect. lf there is a negative effect, it is because there is shielded or covert feelings or memoriesin the subconscious.These will cause disease iłleft untreated. A simple release may salve the problem.
The changesinclude:

Activate the innate intelligence to balance the body energies. This is the basie principle of chiropractic, acupuncture,and osteopathy medicine.
There is an easier exchange of energy and information from right brain to left brain via the corpus callosum. The corpus callosumis the largest energy form in the body and the rectification process has profound effects on stabilizing it, so it dramatically reduces switching phenomena.
The SCIO thereby increases the ability of the conscious to interface with the unconscious. This allows greater knowledge of self and of the higher self.
There is a greater memory access,a mare true access of memory without emotional clouding.
There is a greater flexibility of connective tissue, allowing for mare resilience.
There is a greater oxygenat ion and hydration ability of the body.
There is a smoother muscle control.
There is a general increase in well being that the conscious mind is so often unable to perceive.And thus there are thousands of subtle improvements to be found.

tel:+3613036043 I web: www.qxsubspace.com I e-mail:info@qxsubspace.com

advert/reklam

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San Antonio spurs, Dennis Johnson

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The first sport study with the Quantum Xrroid technology was on members of the Cleveland Browns football team in 1988. The results were amazing and all of the participants went all Pro over the next five years. Having worked with the power lifting team of Hungary in 1991 they went from moderata to gold medal performance.
AC Milan bought some systems and their injury level dropped 91%.This was because the system can stimulate and accelerate healing of injured tissue. They asked for us to develop the device to sharpen the athletic skills of the clients.With this in mind we developed a way to sharpen coordina· tion endurance and strength. AC Milan won the European championship the next two years. We worked with Dennis Johnson ex twice NBA MVP in the San Antonio Spurs system. The results were amazing.
The Chinese Olympic team had us do a study.Out of their 487 athletes in the 2008 Olympic Games, they assigned 150 of the sick, old, weak,and tired to us.The study was to see if we could repair injured tissue and get an athlete back onto the field. The results were astounding. Out of the hundred medals won by the Chinese our 30% of the injured performers won 33 % of the medals. Our athletes were not supposed to win. And because of this Desire’ was awarded an honorary Gold medal.
Sports medicine has entered the energetic arena. There are those who want to win and they differ from those who want to conform.
Same of the best cyclists in the world have used the SCID to win championsh

Sending in an auto-focused sophisticated pulse different for each patient based on their personal electrical needs.

lf youneed more informationon the SCIO and purchase details please get intouch with us
Mandelay Kn
Iweb:www .qxsubspace.com I e-mail:info@qxsubspace.com

SCIO

Eductor Dual Channeleeg Brain wave Modulation you can see right and left brain wave activity clearly

CLINICAL EVALUATION

EDUCTO R

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measu es– eats

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Volts and Oscillations (EMG, EEG) Amps and Oscillations (EC:G)
Resistance (GSR)
Hydrati.on Oxidation (Redox potentia!) Ph acid vs alkalinity
Reactivity evoked potentia!! to voltammetric fields of substances (’IVEP) over 228,000 measures a second of these energetic factors

Brain wave and emotions with (MCES)
Pain with (MENS) (TENS)

Trauma or wounds (EWH)
Electro Weakness Ph, Redox disorder (VARHOPE Correction)
Trickle charge the body electric

lf you need more information on the SCIO and purchase details
please get in touch with us

web: www .qxsubspace.com e-mail:info@qxsubspace.com
All designed to detect + red tro-stre s and Balanace the Bo ectric Automatically

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Factors that influence the body voltage and membrane potentia! are fatty acids in the cell membrane, minerals, especially salts, hydration water , oxygenation,stress,toxins and life style.

The SCIO has been proven in tests to increase the electrical potentia! of the body. lncreased cellular membrane potentia! makes osmosis increase, which increases detoxification , nutrient transfer and absorption, hydration, oxidation,and all cellular functions in general.

lf you need more information on the SCIO and purchase details please get in touch with us
Mandelay Kft
tel:+36 21 252 3503 Iweb: www.qxsubspace.com I e-mail: info@qxsubspace.com

SCIO

advert/reklam

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The word 'Doctor’ comes From the Latin word
'E.ductor’
which means 'to teach’.

Thomas E_d ison sa id that the doctor ot the tutu re will teach the patient how to live and how to eat, exercise and meditate.

,-he E_d u ctor is a 51oteedback
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PROFESSOR DESIRE DUBOUNET
THE DEVELOPER

Blog

SCIO – Valid Journal supplement. Additional art proving Trans-cranial Eductor small.

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